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twenty years the peasant； already proprietor of a fifth of the soil；
would； without the violent events of the Revolution； in any case
have attained the same degree of independence and well…being which
he was to achieve by passing through it。 On the other hand； through
the annual vote on the taxes； not only were waste and arbitrariness
in the employment of the public funds put a stop to； but also the
foundations of the parliamentary system of government were laid：
whoever holds the purse…strings is； or becomes； master of the rest；
henceforth in the maintenance or establishment of any service； the
assent of the States was to be necessary。 Now； in the three
Chambers which the three orders were thenceforward to form； there
were two in which the plebeians predominated。 Public opinion；
moreover； was on their side； while the King； the true constitutional
monarch； far from possessing the imperious inflexibility of a
despot； did not now possess the initiative of an ordinary person。
Thus the preponderance fell to the communes； and they could legally；
without any collision； execute multiply； and complete； with the aid
of the prince and through him； all useful reforms。＇7＇ This was
enough； for human society； like a living body； is seized with
convulsions when it is subjected to operations on too great a scale；
and these； although restricted； were probably all that France in
1789 could endure。 To equitably reorganize afresh the whole system
of direct and indirect taxation； to revise； recast； and transfer to
the frontiers the customs…tariffs； to suppress； through negotiations
and with indemnity； feudal and ecclesiastical claims； was an
operation of the greatest magnitude； and as complex as it was
delicate。 Things could be satisfactorily arranged only through
minute inquiries； verified calculations； prolonged essays； and
mutual concessions。 In England； in our day； a quarter of a century
has been required to bring about a lesser reform； the transformation
of tithes and manorial…rights； and time likewise was necessary for
our Assemblies to perfect their political education；＇8＇ to get of
their theories； to learn； by contact with practical business； and in
the study of details； the distance which separates speculation from
practice； to discover that a new system of institutions works well
only through a new system of habits； and that to decree a new system
of habits is tantamount to attempting to build an old house。
Such； however； is the work they undertake。 They reject the King's
proposals； the limited reforms； the gradual transformations。
According to them； it is their right and their duty to re…make
society from top to bottom。 Such is the command of pure reason；
which has discovered the Rights of Man and the conditions of the
Social Contract。
II
Nature of societies； and the principle of enduring constitutions。
Apply the Social Contract； if you like； but apply it only to those
for whom it was drawn up。 These were abstract beings； belonging
neither to a period nor to a country； perfect creatures hatched out
under the magic wand of a metaphysician。 They had as a matter of
fact come into existence by removing all the characteristics which
distinguish one man from another；＇9＇ a Frenchman from a Papuan； a
modern Englishman from a Briton in the time of Caesar； and by
retaining only the part which is common to all。＇10＇ The essence thus
obtained is a prodigiously meager one； an infinitely curtailed
extract of human nature； that is； in the phraseology of the day；
〃A BEING WITH A DESIRE TO BE HAPPY AND THE FACULTY OF REASONING；〃
nothing more and nothing else。 After this pattern several million
individuals； all precisely alike； have been prepared while； through
a second simplification； as extraordinary as the first one； they are
all supposed to be free and all equal； without a past； without
kindred； without responsibility； without traditions； without
customs； like so many mathematical units； all separable and all
equivalent； and then it is imagined that； assembled together for the
first time； these proceed to make their primitive bargain。 From the
nature they are supposed to possess and the situation in which they
are placed； no difficulty is found in deducing their interests；
their wills； and the contract between them。 But if this contract
suits them； it does not follow that it suits others。 On the
contrary； if follows that is does not suit others； the inconvenience
becomes extreme on its being imposed on a living society； the
measure of that inconvenience will be the immensity of the distance
which divides a hollow abstraction； a philosophical phantom； an
empty insubstantial image from the real and complete man。
In any event we are not here considering a specimen； so reduced and
mutilated as to be only an outline of a human being； no； we are to
the contrary considering Frenchmen of the year 1789。 It is for them
alone that the constitution is being made： it is therefore they
alone who should be considered； they are manifestly men of a
particular species； having their peculiar temperament； their special
aptitudes； their own inclinations； their religion； their history；
all adding up into a mental and moral structure； hereditary and
deeply rooted； bequeathed to them by the indigenous stock； and to
which every great event； each political or literary phase for twenty
centuries； has added a growth； a transformation or a custom。 It is
like some tree of a unique species whose trunk； thickened by age；
preserves in its annual rings and in its knots； branches； and
curvatures； the deposits which its sap has made and the imprint of
the innumerable seasons through which it has passed。 Using the
philosophic definition； so vague and trite； to such an organism； is
only a puerile label teaching us nothing。 And all the more
because extreme diversities and inequalities show themselves on this
exceedingly elaborate and complicated background； those of age；
education； faith； class and fortune； and these must be taken into
account； for these contribute to the formation of interests；
passions； and dispositions。 To take only the most important of
these； it is clear that； according to the average of human life；＇11＇
one…half of the population is composed of children； and； besides
this； one…half of the adults are women。 In every twenty inhabitants
eighteen are Catholic； of whom sixteen are believers； at least
through habit and tradition。 Twenty…five out of twenty…six millions
of Frenchmen cannot read； one million at the most being able to do
so； and in political matters only five or six hundred are competent。
As to the condition of each class； its ideas； its sentiments； its
kind and degree of culture； we should have to devote a large volume
to a mere sketch of them。
There is still another feature and the most important of all。 These
men who are so different from each other are far from being
independent； or from contracting together for the first time。 They
and their ancestors for eight hundred years form a national body；
and it is because they belong to this body that they live； multiply；
labor； make acquisitions； become enlightened and civilized； and
accumulate the vast heritage of comforts and intelligence which they
now enjoy。 Each in this community is like the cell of an organized
body； undoubtedly the body is only an accumulation of cells； but the
cell is born； subsists； develops and attains its individual ends
only be the healthy condition of the whole body。 Its chief
interest； accordingly； is the prosperity of the whole organism； and
the fundamental requirement of all the little fragmentary lives；
whether they know it or not； is the conservation of the great total
life in which they are comprised as musical notes in a concert。
Not only is this a necessity for them； but it is also a duty。 We
are all born with a debt to our country； and this debt increases
while we grow up； it is with the assistance of our country； under
the protection of the law； upheld by the authorities； that our
ancestors and parents have given us life； property； and education。
Each person's faculties； ideas； attitudes； his or her entire moral
and physical being are the products to which the community has
contributed； directly or indirectly； at least as tutor and guardian。
By virtue of this the state is his creditor； just as a destitute
father is of his able…bodied son； it can lay claim to nourishment；
services； and； in all the force or resources of which he disposes；
it deservedly demands a share。 This he knows and feels； the
notion of country is deeply implanted within him； and when occasion
calls for it； it will show itself in ardent emotions； fueling steady
sacrifice and heroic effort。 Such are veritable Frenchmen； and
we at once see how different they are from the simple；
indistinguishable； detached monads which the philosophers insist on