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directed the various cabinet officers to extend the work of their departments over the Confederate States and ordered the army officers to assist the civil authorities。 During the next six weeks； similar measures were undertaken for the remaining six states of the Confederacy。
To set up the new order； army officers were first sent into every county to administer the amnesty oath and thus to secure a 〃loyal〃 electorate。 In each state the provisional governor organized out of the remains of the Confederate local regime a new civil government。 Confederate local officials who could and would take the amnesty oath were directed to resume office until relieved； the laws of 1861； except those relating to slavery； were declared to be in force； the courts were directed to use special efforts to crush lawlessness； and the old jury lists were destroyed and new ones were drawn up containing only the names of those who had taken the amnesty oath。 Since there was no money in any state treasury； small sums were now raised by license taxes。 A full staff of department heads was appointed； and by July 1865； the provisional governments were in fair working order。
To the constitutional conventions； which met in the fall； it was made clear； through the governors； that the President would insist upon three conditions： the formal abolition of slavery； the repudiation of the ordinance of secession； and the repudiation of the Confederate war debt。 To Governor Holden he telegraphed： 〃Every dollar of the debt created to aid the rebellion against the United States should be repudiated finally and forever。 The great mass of the people should not be taxed to pay a debt to aid in carrying on a rebellion which they in fact； if left to themselves； were opposed to。 Let those who had given their means for the obligations of the state look to that power they tried to establish in violation of law； constitution； and will of the people。 They must meet their fate。〃 With little opposition these conditions were fulfilled； though there was a strong feeling against the repudiation of the debt； much discussion as to whether the ordinance of secession should be 〃repealed〃 or declared 〃now and always null and void；〃 and some quibbling as to whether slavery was being destroyed by state action or had already been destroyed by war。
In the old state constitutions； very slight changes were made。 Of these the chief were concerned with the abolition of slavery and the arrangement of representation and direct taxation on the basis of white population。 Little effort was made to settle any of the Negro problems； and in all states the conventions left it to the legislatures to make laws for the freedmen。 There was no discussion of Negro； suffrage in the conventions； but President Johnson sent what was for him a remarkable communication to Governor Sharkey of Mississippi：
〃If you could extend the elective franchise to all persons of color who can read the Constitution of the United States in English and write their names； and to all persons of color who own real estate valued at not less than two hundred and fifty dollars and pay taxes thereon； you would completely disarm the adversary and set an example the other states will follow。 This you can do with perfect safety； and you would thus place Southern States in reference to free persons of color upon the same basis with the free states 。 。 。 。 And as a consequence the radicals； who are wild upon Negro franchise； will be completely foiled in their attempts to keep the Southern states from renewing their relations to the Union by not accepting their senators and representatives。〃
In deciding upon a basis of representation； it was clear that the majority of delegates desired to lessen the influence of the Black Belt and place the control of the government with the 〃up country。〃 In the Alabama convention Robert M。 Patton； then a delegate and later governor； frankly avowed this object； and in South Carolina； Governor Perry urged the convention to give no consideration to Negro suffrage； 〃because this is a white man's government；〃 and if the Negroes should vote they would be controlled by a few whites。 A kindly disposition toward the Negroes was general except on the part of extreme Unionists； who opposed any favors to the race。 〃This is a white man's country〃 was a doctrine to which all the conventions subscribed。
The conventions held brief sessions； completed their work； and adjourned； after directing that elections be held for state and local officers and for members of Congress。 Before December the appointed local officials had been succeeded by elected officers； members of Congress were on their way to Washington； the state legislatures were assembling or already in session； and the elected governors were ready to take office。 It was understood that as soon as enough state legislatures ratified the Thirteenth Amendment to make it a part of the Constitution； the President would permit the transfer of authority to the new governors。 The legislature of Mississippi alone was recalcitrant about the amendment； and before January 1866； the elected officials were everywhere installed except in Texas； where the work was not completed until March。 When Congress met in December 1865； the President reported that all former Confederate States except Texas were ready to be readmitted。 Congress； however； refused to admit their senators and representatives； and thus began the struggle which ended over a year later with the victory of the radicals and the undoing of the work of the two Presidents。
The plan of the Presidents was at best only imperfectly realized。 It was found impossible to reorganize the Federal Administration in the South with men who could subscribe to the 〃ironclad oath；〃 for nearly all who were competent to hold office had favored or aided the Confederacy。 It was two years before more than a third of the post offices could be opened。 The other Federal departments were in similar difficulties； and at last women and 〃carpetbaggers〃 were appointed。 The Freedmen's Bureau； which had been established coincidently with the provisional governments； assumed jurisdiction over the Negroes； while the army authorities very early took the position that any man who claimed to be a Unionist should not be tried in the local courts but must be given a better chance in a provost court。 Thus a third or more of the population was withdrawn from the control of the state government。 In several states the head of the Bureau made arrangements for local magistrates and officials to act as Bureau officials； and in such cases the two authorities acted in cooperation。 The army of occupation； too； exerted an authority which not infrequently interfered with the workings of the new state government。 Nearly everywhere there was a lack of certainty and efficiency due to the concurrent and sometimes conflicting jurisdictions of state government； army commanders； Bureau authorities； and even the President acting upon or through any of the others。
The standing of the Southern state organizations was in doubt after the refusal of Congress to recognize them。 Nevertheless； in spite of this uncertainty they continued to function as states during the year of controversy which followed； the courts were opened and steadily grew in influence； here and there militia and patrols were reorganized； officials who refused to 〃accept the situation〃 were dismissed； elections were held； the legislatures revised the laws to fit new conditions and enacted new laws for the emancipated blacks。 To all this progress in reorganization； the action of Congress was a severe blow； since it gave notice that none of the problems of reconstruction were yet solved。 An increasing spirit of irritation and independence was observed throughout the states in question； and at the elections the former Confederates gained more and more offices。 The year was marked in the South by the tendency toward the formation of parties； by the development of the 〃Southern outrages〃 issue； by an attempt to frustrate radical action； and finally by a lineup of the great mass of the whites in opposition to the Fourteenth Amendment and other radical plans of Congress。
The Joint Committee on Reconstruction； appointed when Congress refused to accept the work of President Johnson； proceeded during several months to take testimony and to consider measures。 The testimony； which was taken chiefly to support opinions already formed； appeared to prove that the Negroes and the Unionists were so badly treated that the Freedmen's Bureau and the army must be kept in the South to protect them； that free Negro labor was a success but that the whites were hostile to it； that the whites were disloyal and would； if given control of the Southern governments and admitted to Congress； constitute a danger to the nation and especially to the party in power。
To convince the voters of the North of the necessity of dealing drastically with the South a campaign of misrepresentation was begun in the summer of 1865； which became more and more systematic and unscrupulous as the political struggle at Washington grew fiercer。 Newspapers regularly ran columns headed 〃Southern Outrages；〃 and every conceivable mistreatment of blacks by