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at the foot of the Alps； owing to the influence of Italy； Greece；
and the transport trade by land； on the Rhine； the Elbe； and the
Danube； by means of viticulture and the wine trade； owing to the
exceptional fertility of the soil and the facilities of water
communication； which in the Middle Ages was of still greater
importance than even in our days； because of the wretched condition
of the roads and the general state of insecurity。
This diversity of origin will explain the diversity
characterising the several confederations of German cities； such as
the Hanseatic； the Rhenish； the Swabian； the Dutch； and the
Helvetic。
Though they continued powerful for a time owing to the spirit
of youthful freedom which pervaded them； yet these leagues lacked
the internal guarantee of stability； the principle of unity； the
cement。 Separated from each other by the estates of the nobility；
by the serfdom of the population of the country； their union was
doomed sooner or later to break down； owing to the gradual increase
and enrichment of the agricultural population； among whom； through
the power of the princes； the principle of unity was maintained。
The cities； inasmuch as they tended to promote the prosperity of
agriculture； by so doing necessarily were working at their own
effacement； unless they contrived to incorporate the agricultural
classes or the nobility as members of their unions。 For the
accomplishment of that object； however； they lacked the requisite
higher political instincts and knowledge。 Their political vision
seldom extended beyond their own city walls。
Two only of these confederations； Switzerland and the Seven
United Provinces； actually carried out this incorporation； and that
not as the result of reflection； but because they were compelled to
it； and favoured by circumstances； and for that reason those
confederations still exist。 The Swiss Confederation is nothing but
a conglomerate of German imperial cities； established and cemented
together by the free populations occupying the intervening tracts
of country。
The remaining leagues of German cities were ruined owing to
their contempt for the rural population； and from their absurd
burgher arrogance； which delighted in keeping that population in
subjection； rather than in raising them to their own level。
These cities could only have attained unity by means of an
hereditary royal authority。 But this authority in Germany lay in
the hands of the princes； who； in order to avert restraints upon
their own arbitrary rule； and to keep both the cities and the minor
nobles in subjection； were interested in resisting the
establishment of an hereditary empire。
Hence the persevering adherence to the idea of the Imperial
Roman Empire amongst German kings。 Only at the head of armies were
the emperors rulers； only when they went to war were they able to
bring together princes and cities under their banner。 Hence their
protection of civic liberty in Germany； and their hostility to it
and persecution of it in Italy。
The expeditions to Rome not only weakened more and more the
kingly power in Germany； they weakened those very dynasties through
which； within the Empire； in the heart of the nation； a
consolidated power might have grown up。 But with the extinction of
the House of Hohenstaufen the nucleus of consolidated power was
broken up into a thousand fragments。
The sense of the impossibility of consolidating the heart of
the nation impelled the House of Hapsburg； originally so weak and
poor； to utilise the nation's vigour in founding a consolidated
hereditary monarchy on the south…eastern frontier of the German
Empire； by subjugating alien races； a policy which in the northeast
was imitated by the Margraves of Brandenburg。 Thus in the
south…east and north…east there arose hereditary sovereignties
founded upon the dominion over alien races； while in the two
western corners of the land two republics grew into existence which
continually separated themselves more and more from the parent
nation； and within； in the nation's heart； disintegration；
impotence； and dissolution continually progressed。 The misfortunes
of the German nation were completed by the inventions of gunpowder
and of the art of printing； the revival of the Roman law； the
Reformation； and lastly the discovery of America and of the new
route to India。
The intellectual； social； and economic revolution which we have
described produced divisions and disruption between the constituent
members of the Empire； disunion between the princes； disunion
between the cities； disunion even between the various guilds of
individual cities； and between neighbours of every rank。 The
energies of the nation were now diverted from the pursuit of
industry； agriculture； trade； and navigation； from the acquisition
of colonies； the amelioration of internal institutions； in fact
from every kind of substantial improvement； the people contended
about dogmas and the heritage of the Church。
At the same time came the decline of the Hanseatic League and
of Venice； and with it the decline of Germany's wholesale trade；
and of the power and liberties of the German cities both in the
north and in the south。
Then came the Thirty Years' War with its devastations of all
territories and cities。 Holland and Switzerland seceded； while the
fairest provinces of the Empire were conquered by France。 Whereas
formerly single cities； such as Strasburg； N黵nberg； Augsburg； had
surpassed in power entire electorates； they now sank into utter
impotence in consequence of the introduction of standing armies。
If before this revolution the cities and the royal power had
been more consolidated if a king exclusively belonging to the
German nation had obtained a complete mastery of the Reformation；
and had carried it out in the interests of the unity； power； and
freedom of the nation how very differently would the
agriculture； industry； and trade of the Germans have been
developed。 By the side of considerations such as these； how
pitiable and unpractical seems that theory of political economy
which would have us refer the material welfare of nations solely to
the production of individuals； wholly losing sight of the fact that
the producing power of all individuals is to a great extent
determined by the social and political circumstances of the nation。
The introduction of the Roman law weakened no nation so much as the
German。 The unspeakable confusion which it brought into the legal
status and relations of private individuals； was not the worst of
its bad effects。 More mischievous was it by far； in that it created
a caste of learned men and jurists differing from the people in
spirit and language； which treated the people as a class unlearned
in the law； as minors； which denied the authority of all sound
human understanding； which everywhere set up secrecy in the room of
publicity； which； living in the most abject dependence and living
upon arbitrary power； everywhere advocated it and defended its
interests； everywhere gnawed at the roots of liberty。 Thus we see
even to the beginning of the eighteenth century in Germany；
barbarism in literature and language； barbarism in legislation；
State administration and administration of justice； barbarism in
agriculture； decline of industry and of all trade upon a large
scale； want of unity and of force in national cohesion；
powerlessness and weakness on all hands in dealing with foreign
nations。
One thing only the Germans had preserved； that was their
aboriginal character； their love of industry； order； thrift； and
moderation； their perseverance and endurance in research and in
business； their honest striving after improvement； and a
considerable natural measure of morality； prudence； and
circumspection。
This character both the rulers and the ruled had in common。
After the almost total decay of nationality and the restoration of
tranquillity； people began in some individual isolated circles to
introduce order； improvement； and progress。 Nowhere was witnessed
more zeal in cherishing education； manners； religion； art； and
science； nowhere was absolute power exercised with greater
moderation or with more advantage to general enlightenment； order；
and morality； to the reform of abuses and the advancement of the
common welfare。
The foundation for the revival