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AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS



by Adam Smith



1776







                          BOOK FOUR

               OF SYSTEMS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY





                         INTRODUCTION



    POLITICAL economy; considered as a branch of the science of a

statesman or legislator; proposes two distinct objects: first; to

provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people; or

more properly to enable them to provide such a revenue or

subsistence for themselves; and secondly; to supply the state or

commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services。

It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign。

     The different progress of opulence in different ages and

nations has given occasion to two different systems of political

economy with regard to enriching the people。 The one may be

called the system of commerce; the other that of agriculture。 I

shall endeavour to explain both as fully and distinctly as I can;

and shall begin with the system of commerce。 It is the modern

system; and is best understood in our own country and in our own

times。

                              CHAPTER I



       Of the Principle of the Commercial; or Mercantile System 



     THAT wealth consists in money; or and silver; is a popular

notion which naturally arises from the double function of money;

as the instrument of commerce and as the measure of value。 In

consequence of its being the instrument of commerce; when we have

money we can more readily obtain whatever else we have occasion

for than by means of any other commodity。 The great affair; we

always find; is to get money。 When that is obtained; there is no

difficulty in making any subsequent purchase。 In consequence of

its being the measure of value; we estimate that of all other

commodities by the quantity of money which they will exchange

for。 We say of a rich man that he is worth a great deal; and of a

poor man that he is worth very little money。 A frugal man; or a

man eager to be rich; is said to love money; and a careless; a

generous; or a profuse man; is said to be indifferent about it。

To grow rich is to get money; and wealth and money; in short;

are; in common language; considered as in every respect

synonymous。

     A rich country; in the same manner as a rich man; is

supposed to be a country abounding in money; and to heap up gold

and saver in any country is supposed to be the readiest way to

enrich it。 For some time after the discovery of America; the

first inquiry of the Spaniards; when they arrived upon an unknown

coast; used to be; if there was any gold or silver to be found in

the neighbourhood。 By the information which they received; they

judged whether it was worth while to make a settlement there; or

if the country was worth the conquering。 Plano Carpino; a monk;

sent ambassador from the King of France to one of the sons of the

famous Genghis Khan; says that the Tartars used frequently to ask

him if there was plenty of sheep and oxen in the kingdom of

France。 Their inquiry had the same object with that of the

Spaniards。 They wanted to know if the country was rich enough to

be worth the conquering。 Among the Tartars; as among all other

nations of shepherds; who are generally ignorant of the use of

money; cattle are the instruments of commerce and the measures of

value。 Wealth; therefore; according to them; consisted in cattle;

as according to the Spaniards it consisted in gold and silver。 Of

the two; the Tartar notion; perhaps; was the nearest to the

truth。

     Mr。 Locke remarks a distinction between money and other

movable goods。 All other movable goods; he says; are of so

consumable a nature that the wealth which consists in them cannot

be much depended on; and a nation which abounds in them one year

may; without any exportation; but merely their own waste and

extravagance; be in great want of them the next。 Money; on the

contrary; is a steady friend; which; though it may travel about

from hand to hand; yet if it can be kept from going out of the

country; is not very liable to be wasted and consumed。 Gold and

silver; therefore; are; according to him; the most solid and

substantial part of the movable wealth of a nation; and to

multiply those metals ought; he thinks; upon that account; to be

the great object of its political economy。

     Others admit that if a nation could be separated from all

the world; it would be of no consequence how much; or how little

money circulated in it。 The consumable goods which were

circulated by means of this money would only be exchanged for a

greater or a smaller number of pieces; but the real wealth or

poverty of the country; they allow; would depend altogether upon

the abundance or scarcity of those consumable goods。 But it is

otherwise; they think; with countries which have connections with

foreign nations; and which are obliged to carry on foreign wars;

and to maintain fleets and armies in distant countries。 This;

they say; cannot be done but by sending abroad money to pay them

with; and a nation cannot send much money abroad unless it has a

good deal at home。 Every such nation; therefore; must endeavour

in time of peace to accumulate gold and silver that; when

occasion requires; it may have wherewithal to carry on foreign

wars。

     In consequence of these popular notions; all the different

nations of Europe have studied; though to little purpose; every

possible means of accumulating gold and silver in their

respective countries。 Spain and Portugal; the proprietors of the

principal mines which supply Europe with those metals; have

either prohibited their exportation under the severest penalties;

or subjected it to a considerable duty。 The like prohibition

seems anciently to have made a part of the policy of most other

European nations。 It is even to be found; where we should least

of all expect to find it; in some old Scotch acts of Parliament;

which forbid under heavy penalties the carrying gold or silver

forth of the kingdom。 The like policy anciently took place both

in France and England。

     When those countries became commercial; the merchants found

this prohibition; upon many occasions; extremely inconvenient。

They could frequently buy more advantageously with gold and

silver than with any other commodity the foreign goods which they

wanted; either to import into their own; or to carry to some

other foreign country。 They remonstrated; therefore; against this

prohibition as hurtful to trade。

     They represented; first; that the exportation of gold and

silver in order to purchase foreign goods; did not always

diminish the quantity of those metals in the kingdom。 That; on

the contrary; it might frequently increase that quantity;

because; if the consumption of foreign goods was not thereby

increased in the country; those goods might be re…exported to

foreign countries; and; being there sold for a large profit;

might bring back much more treasure than was originally sent out

to purchase them。 Mr。 Mun compares this operation of foreign

trade to the seed…time and harvest of agriculture。 〃If we only

behold;〃 says he; 〃the actions of the husbandman in the

seed…time; when he casteth away much good corn into the ground;

we shall account him rather a madman than a husbandman。 But when

we consider his labours in the harvest; which is the end of his

endeavours; we shall find the worth and plentiful increase of his

action。〃

     They represented; secondly; that this prohibition could not

hinder the exportation of gold and silver; which; on account of

the smallness of their bulk in proportion to their value; could

easily be smuggled abroad。 That this exportation could only be

prevented by a proper attention to; what they called; the balance

of trade。 That when the country exported to a greater value than

it imported; a balance became due to it from foreign nations;

which was necessarily paid to it in gold and silver; and thereby

increased the quantity of those metals in the kingdom。 But that

when it imported to a greater value than it exported; a contrary

balance became due to foreign nations; which was necessarily paid

to them in the same manner; and thereby diminished that quantity。

That in this case to prohibit the exportation of those metals

could not prevent it; but only; by making it more dangerous;

render it more expensive。 That the exchange was thereby turned

more against the country which owed the balance than it otherwise

might have been; the merchant who purchased a bill upon the

foreign country being obliged to pay the banker who sold it; not

only for the natural risk; trouble; and expense of sending the

money thither; but for the extraordinary risk arising from the

prohibition。 But that the more the exchange was against any

country; the more the balance of trade became necessarily against

it; the money of that country becoming necessarily of so much

less value in comparison with that of the country to which the

balance was due。 That if the exchange between England and

Holland
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