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and ingenuity in France。 It would not； surely； be worth while to
examine at great length the errors of a system which never has
done； and probably never will do； any harm in any part of the
world。 I shall endeavour to explain； however； as distinctly as I
can； the great outlines of this very ingenious system。
Mr。 Colbert； the famous minister of Louis XIV； was a man of
probity； of great industry and knowledge of detail； of great
experience and acuteness in the examination of public accounts；
and of abilities； in short； every way fitted for introducing
method and good order into the collection and expenditure of the
public revenue。 That minister had unfortunately embraced all the
prejudices of the mercantile system； in its nature and essence a
system of restraint and regulation； and such as could scarce fail
to be agreeable to a laborious and plodding man of business； who
had been accustomed to regulate the different departments of
public offices； and to establish the necessary checks and
controls for confining each to its proper sphere。 The industry
and commerce of a great country he endeavoured to regulate upon
the same model as the departments of a public office； and instead
of allowing every man to pursue his own interest in his own way；
upon the liberal plan of equality； liberty； and justice； he
bestowed upon certain branches of industry extraordinary
privileges； while he laid others under as extraordinary
restraints。 He was not only disposed； like other European
ministers； to encourage more the industry of the towns than that
of the country； but； in order to support the industry of the
towns； he was willing even to depress and keep down that of the
country。 In order to render provisions cheap to the inhabitants
of the towns； and thereby to encourage manufactures and foreign
commerce； he prohibited altogether the exportation of corn； and
thus excluded the inhabitants of the country from every foreign
market for by far the most important part of the produce of their
industry。 This prohibition； joined to the restraints imposed by
the ancient provincial laws of France upon the transportation of
corn from one province to another； and to the arbitrary and
degrading taxes which are levied upon the cultivators in almost
all the provinces； discouraged and kept down the agriculture of
that country very much below the state to which it would
naturally have risen in so very fertile a soil and so very happy
a climate。 This state of discouragement and depression was felt
more or less in every different part of the country； and many
different inquiries were set on foot concerning the causes of it。
One of those causes appeared to be the preference given； by the
institutions of Mr。 Colbert； to the industry of the towns above
that of the country。
If the rod be bent too much one way； says the proverb； in
order to make it straight you must bend it as much the other。 The
French philosophers； who have proposed the system which
represents agriculture as the sole source of the revenue and
wealth of every country； seem to have adopted this proverbial
maxim； and as in the plan of Mr。 Colbert the industry of the
towns was certainly overvalued in comparison with that of the
country； so in their system it seems to be as certainly
undervalued。
The different orders of people who have ever been supposed
to contribute in any respect towards the annual produce of the
land and labour of the country； they divide into three classes。
The first is the class of the proprietors of land。 The second is
the class of the cultivators； of farmers and country labourers；
whom they honour with the peculiar appellation of the productive
class。 The third is the class of artificers； manufacturers； and
merchants； whom they endeavour to degrade by the humiliating
appellation of the barren or unproductive class。
The class of proprietors contributes to the annual produce
by the expense which they may occasionally lay out upon the
improvement of the land； upon the buildings； drains； enclosures；
and other ameliorations； which they may either make or maintain
upon it； and by means of which the cultivators are enabled； with
the same capital； to raise a greater produce； and consequently to
pay a greater rent。 This advanced rent may be considered as the
interest or profit due to the proprietor upon the expense or
capital which he thus employs in the improvement of his land。
Such expenses are in this system called ground expenses （depenses
foncieres。）
The cultivators or farmers contribute to the annual produce
by what are in this system called the original and annual
expenses （depenses primitives et depenses annuelles） which they
lay out upon the cultivation of the land。 The original expenses
consist in the instruments of husbandry； in the stock of cattle；
in the seed； and in the maintenance of the farmer's family；
servants； and cattle during at least a great part of the first
year of his occupancy； or till he can receive some return from
the land。 The annual expenses consist in the seed； in the wear
and tear of the instruments of husbandry； and in the annual
maintenance of the farmer's servants and cattle； and of his
family too； so far as any part of them can be considered as
servants employed in cultivation。 That part of the produce of the
land which remains to him after paying the rent ought to be
sufficient； first； to replace to him within a reasonable time； at
least during the term of his occupancy； the whole of his original
expenses； together with the ordinary profits of stock； and；
secondly； to replace to him annually the whole of his annual
expenses； together likewise with the ordering profits of stock。
Those two sorts of expenses are two capitals which the farmer
employs in cultivation； and unless they are regularly restored to
him； together with a reasonable profit； he cannot carry on his
employment upon a level with other employments； but； from a
regard to his own interest； must desert it as soon as possible
and seek some other。 That part of the produce of the land which
is thus necessary for enabling the farmer to continue his
business ought to be considered as a fund sacred to cultivation；
which； if the landlord violates； he necessarily reduces the
produce of his own land； and in a few years not only disables the
farmer from paying this racked rent； but from paying the
reasonable rent which he might otherwise have got for his land。
The rent which properly belongs to the landlord is no more than
the net produce which remains after paying in the completest
manner all the necessary expenses which must be previously laid
out in order to raise the gross or the whole produce。 It is
because the labour of the cultivators； over and above paying
completely all those necessary expenses； affords a net produce of
this kind that this class of people are in this system peculiarly
distinguished by the honourable appellation of the productive
class。 Their original and annual expenses are for the same reason
called； in this system； productive expenses； because； over and
above replacing their own value； they occasion the annual
reproduction of this net produce。
The ground expenses； as they are called； or what the
landlord lays out upon the improvement of his land； are in this
system； too； honoured with the appellation of productive
expenses。 Till the whole of those expenses； together with the
ordinary profits of stock； have been completely repaid to him by
the advanced rent which he gets from his land； that advanced rent
ought to be regarded as sacred and inviolable； both by the church
and by the king； ought to be subject neither to tithe nor to
taxation。 If it is otherwise； by discouraging the improvement of
land the church discourages the future increase of her own
tithes； and the king the future increase of his own taxes。 As in
a well…ordered state of things； therefore； those ground expenses；
over and above reproducing in the completest manner their own
value； occasion likewise after a certain time a reproduction of a
net produce； they are in this system considered as productive
expenses。
The ground expenses of the landlord； however； together with
the original and the annual expenses of the farmer； are the only
three sorts of expenses which in this system are considered as
productive。 All other expenses and all other orders of people；
even those who in the common apprehensions of men are regarded as
the most productive； are in this account of things represented as
altogether barren and unproductive。
Artificers and manufacturers in particular； whose industry；
in the common apprehensions of men； increases so much the value
of the rude produce of land； are in this system represented as a
class of people altogether barren and unproductive。 Their labour；
it is said； replaces only the stock which employs them； together
with its ordinary profits。 That stock consists in the materials；
tools； and wages advanced to them by their employer； and is the
fund destined for their employment