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maintains and employs the unproductive class。 The greater this
surplus the greater must likewise be the maintenance and
employment of that class。 The establishment of perfect justice；
of perfect liberty； and of perfect equality is the very simple
secret which most effectually secures the highest degree of
prosperity to all the three classes。
The merchants； artificers； and manufacturers of those
mercantile states which； like Holland and Hamburg； consist
chiefly of this unproductive class； are in the same manner
maintained and employed altogether at the expense of the
proprietors and cultivators of land。 The only difference is； that
those proprietors and cultivators are； the greater part of them；
placed at a most inconvenient distance from the merchants；
artificers； and manufacturers whom they supply with the materials
of their work and the fund of their subsistences… the inhabitants
of other countries and the subjects of other governments。
Such mercantile states； however； are not only useful； but
greatly useful to the inhabitants of those other countries。 They
fill up； in some measure； a very important void； and supply the
place of the merchants； artificers； and manufacturers whom the
inhabitants of those countries ought to find at home； but whom；
from some defect in their policy； they do not find at home。
It can never be the interest of those landed nations； if I
may call them so； to discourage or distress the industry of such
mercantile states by imposing high duties upon their trade or
upon the commodities which they furnish。 Such duties； by
rendering those commodities dearer； could serve only to sink the
real value of the surplus produce of their own land； with which；
or； what comes to the same thing； with the price of which those
commodities are purchased。 Such duties could serve only to
discourage the increase of that surplus produce； and consequently
the improvement and cultivation of their own land。 The most
effectual expedient； on the contrary； for raising the value of
that surplus produce； for encouraging its increase； and
consequently the improvement and cultivation of their own land
would be to allow the most perfect freedom to the trade of all
such mercantile nations。
This perfect freedom of trade would even be the most
effectual expedient for supplying them； in due time； with all the
artificers； manufacturers； and merchants whom they wanted at
home； and for filling up in the properest and most advantageous
manner that very important void which they felt there。
The continual increase of the surplus produce of their land
would； in due time； create a greater capital than what could be
employed with the ordinary rate of profit in the improvement and
cultivation of land； and the surplus part of it would naturally
turn itself to the employment of artificers and manufacturers at
home。 But those artificers and manufacturers； finding at home
both the materials of their work and the fund of their
subsistence； might immediately even with much less art and skill
be able to work as cheap as the like artificers and manufacturers
of such mercantile states who had both to bring from a great
distance。 Even though； from want of art and skill； they might not
for some time be able to work as cheap； yet； finding a market at
home； they might be able to sell their work there as cheap as
that of the artificers and manufacturers of such mercantile
states； which could not be brought to that market but from so
great a distance； and as their art and skill improved； they would
soon be able to sell it cheaper。 The artificers and manufacturers
of such mercantile states； therefore； would immediately be
rivalled in the market of those landed nations； and soon after
undersold and jostled out of it altogether。 The cheapness of the
manufactures of those landed nations； in consequence of the
gradual improvements of art and skill； would； in due time； extend
their sale beyond the home market； and carry them to many foreign
markets； from which they would in the same manner gradually
jostle out many of the manufacturers of such mercantile nations。
This continual increase both of the rude and manufactured
produce of those landed nations would in due time create a
greater capital than could； with the ordinary rate of profit； be
employed either in agriculture or in manufactures。 The surplus of
this capital would naturally turn itself to foreign trade； and be
employed in exporting to foreign countries such parts of the rude
and manufactured produce of its own country as exceeded the
demand of the home market。 In the exportation of the produce of
their own country； the merchants of a landed nation would have an
advantage of the same kind over those of mercantile nations which
its artificers and manufacturers had over the artificers and
manufacturers of such nations； the advantage of finding at home
that cargo and those stores and provisions which the others were
obliged to seek for at a distance。 With inferior art and skill in
navigation； therefore； they would be able to sell that cargo as
cheap in foreign markets as the merchants of such mercantile
nations； and with equal art and skill they would be able to sell
it cheaper。 They would soon； therefore； rival those mercantile
nations in this branch of foreign trade； and in due time would
jostle them out of it altogether。
According to this liberal and generous system； therefore；
the most advantageous method in which a landed nation can raise
up artificers； manufacturers； and merchants of its own is to
grant the most perfect freedom of trade to the artificers；
manufacturers； and merchants of all other nations。 It thereby
raises the value of the surplus produce of its own land； of which
the continual increase gradually establishes a fund； which in due
time necessarily raises up all the artificers； manufacturers； and
merchants whom it has occasion for。
When a landed nation； on the contrary； oppresses either by
high duties or by prohibitions the trade of foreign nations； it
necessarily hurts its own interest in two different ways。 First；
by raising the price of all foreign goods and of all sorts of
manufactures； it necessarily sinks the real value of the surplus
produce of its own land； with which； or； what comes to the same
thing； with the price of which it purchases those foreign goods
and manufactures。 Secondly； by giving a sort of monopoly of the
home market to its own merchants； artificers； and manufacturers；
it raises the rate of mercantile and manufacturing profit in
proportion to that of agricultural profit； and consequently
either draws from agriculture a part of the capital which had
before been employed in it； or hinders from going to it a part of
what would otherwise have gone to it。 This policy； therefore；
discourages agriculture in two different ways； first； by sinking
the real value of its produce； and thereby lowering the rate of
its profit； and； secondly； by raising the rate of profit in all
other employments。 Agriculture is rendered less advantageous； and
trade and manufactures more advantageous than they otherwise
would be； and every man is tempted by his own interest to turn；
as much as he can； both his capital and his industry from the
former to the latter employments。
Though； by this oppressive policy； a landed nation should be
able to raise up artificers； manufacturers； and merchants of its
own somewhat sooner than it could do by the freedom of trade a
matter； however； which is not a little doubtful… yet it would
raise them up； if one may say so； prematurely； and before it was
perfectly ripe for them。 By raising up too hastily one species of
industry； it would depress another more valuable species of
industry。 By raising up too hastily a species of industry which
only replaces the stock which employs it； together with the
ordinary profit； it would depress a species of industry which；
over and above replacing that stock with its profit； affords
likewise a net produce； a free rent to the landlord。 It would
depress productive labour； by encouraging too hastily that labour
which is altogether barren and unproductive。
In what manner； according to this system； the sum total of
the annual produce of the land is distributed among the three
classes above mentioned； and in what manner the labour of the
unproductive class does no more than replace the value of its own
consumption； without increasing in any respect the value of that
sum total； is represented by Mr。 Quesnai； the very ingenious and
profound author of this system； in some arithmetical formularies。
The first of these formularies； which by way of eminence he
peculiarly distinguishes by the name of the Economical Table；
represents the manner in which he supposes the distribution takes
place in a state of the most perfect liberty and therefore of the
highest prosperity… in a state where the annual produce is such
as to afford the greatest possible net produce； and where each
class enjoys its proper share of the whole annua