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actually maintained within it； or； secondly； by some increase in
the quantity of that labour。
The improvement in the productive powers of useful labour
depend； first； upon the improvement in the ability of the
workman； and； secondly； upon that of the machinery with which he
works。 But the labour of artificers and manufacturers； as it is
capable of being more subdivided； and the labour of each workman
reduced to a greater simplicity of operation than that of farmers
and country labourers； so it is likewise capable of both these
sorts of improvements in a much higher degree。 In this respect；
therefore； the class of cultivators can have no sort of advantage
over that of artificers and manufacturers。
The increase in the quantity of useful labour actually
employed within any society must depend altogether upon the
increase of the capital which employs it； and the increase of
that capital again must be exactly equal to the amount of the
savings from the revenue； either of the particular persons who
manage and direct the employment of that capital； or of some
other persons who lend it to them。 If merchants； artificers； and
manufacturers are； as this system seems to suppose； naturally
more inclined to parsimony and saving than proprietors and
cultivators； they are； so far； more likely to augment the
quantity of useful labour employed within their society； and
consequently to increase its real revenue； the annual produce of
its land and labour。
Fifthly and lastly； though the revenue of the inhabitants of
every country was supposed to consist altogether； as this system
seems to suppose； in the quantity of subsistence which their
industry could procure to them； yet； even upon this supposition；
the revenue of a trading and manufacturing country must； other
things being equal； always be much greater than that of one
without trade or manufactures。 By means of trade and
manufactures； a greater quantity of subsistence can be annually
imported into a particular country than what its own lands； in
the actual state of their cultivation； could afford。 The
inhabitants of a town； though they frequently possess no lands of
their own； yet draw to themselves by their industry such a
quantity of the rude produce of the lands of other people as
supplies them； not only with the materials of their work； but
with the fund of their subsistence。 What a town always is with
regard to the country in its neighbourhood； one independent state
or country may frequently be with regard to other independent
states or countries。 It is thus that Holland draws a great part
of its subsistence from other countries； live cattle from
Holstein and Jutland； and corn from almost all the different
countries of Europe。 A small quantity of manufactured produce
purchases a great quantity of rude produce。 A trading and
manufacturing country； therefore； naturally purchases with a
small part of its manufactured produce a great part of the rude
produce of other countries； while； on the contrary； a country
without trade and manufactures is generally obliged to purchase；
at the expense of a great part of its rude produce； a very small
part of the manufactured produce of other countries。 The one
exports what can subsist and accommodate but a very few； and
imports the subsistence and accommodation of a great number。 The
other exports the accommodation and subsistence of a great
number； and imports that of a very few only。 The inhabitants of
the one must always enjoy a much greater quantity of subsistence
than what their own lands； in the actual state of their
cultivation； could afford。 The inhabitants of the other must
always enjoy a much smaller quantity。
This system； however； with all its imperfections is；
perhaps； the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been
published upon the subject of political economy； and is upon that
account well worth the consideration of every man who wishes to
examine with attention the principles of that very important
science。 Though in representing the labour which is employed upon
land as the only productive labour； the notions which it
inculcates are perhaps too narrow and confined； yet in
representing the wealth of nations as consisting； not in the
unconsumable riches of money； but in the consumable goods
annually reproduced by the labour of the society； and in
representing perfect liberty as the only effectual expedient for
rendering this annual reproduction the greatest possible； its
doctrine seems to be in every respect as just as it is generous
and liberal。 Its followers are very numerous； and as men are fond
of paradoxes； and of appearing to understand what surpasses the
comprehension of ordinary people； the paradox which it maintains；
concerning the unproductive nature of manufacturing labour； has
not perhaps contributed a little to increase the number of its
admirers。 They have for some years past made a pretty
considerable sect； distinguished in the French republic of
letters by the name of The Economists。 Their works have certainly
been of some service to their country； not only by bringing into
general discussion many subjects which had never been well
examined before； but by influencing in some measure the public
administration in favour of agriculture。 It has been in
consequence of their representations； accordingly； that the
agriculture of France has been delivered from several of the
oppressions which it before laboured under。 The term during which
such a lease can be granted； as will be valid against every
future purchaser or proprietor of the land； has been prolonged
from nine to twenty…seven years。 The ancient provincial
restraints upon the transportation of corn from one province of
the kingdom to another have been entirely taken away； and the
liberty of exporting it to all foreign countries has been
established as the common law of the kingdom in all ordinary
cases。 This sect； in their works； which are very numerous； and
which treat not only of what is properly called Political
Economy； or of the nature and causes of the wealth of nations；
but of every other branch of the system of civil government； all
follow implicitly and without any sensible variation； the
doctrine of Mr。 Quesnai。 There is upon this account little
variety in the greater part of their works。 The most distinct and
best connected account of this doctrine is to be found in a
little book written by Mr。 Mercier de la Riviere； some time
intendant of Martinico； entitled； The Natural and Essential Order
of Political Societies。 The admiration of this whole sect for
their master； who was himself a man of the greatest modesty and
simplicity； is not inferior to that of any of the ancient
philosophers for the founders of their respective systems。 〃There
have been； since the world began；〃 says a very diligent and
respectable author； the Marquis de Mirabeau； 〃three great
inventions which have principally given stability to political
societies； independent of many other inventions which have
enriched and adorned them。 The first is the invention of writing；
which alone gives human nature the power of transmitting； without
alteration； its laws； its contracts； its annals； and its
discoveries。 The second is the invention of money； which binds
together all the relations between civilised societies。 The third
is the Economical Table； the result of the other two； which
completes them both by perfecting their object； the great
discovery of our age； but of which our posterity will reap the
benefit。〃
As the political economy of the nations of modern Europe has
been more favourable to manufactures and foreign trade； the
industry of the towns； than to agriculture； the industry of the
country； so that of other nations has followed a different plan；
and has been more favourable to agriculture than to manufactures
and foreign trade。
The policy of China favours agriculture more than all other
employments。 In China the condition of a labourer is said to be
as much superior to that of an artificer as in most parts of
Europe that of an artificer is to that of a labourer。 In China；
the great ambition of every man is to get possession of some
little bit of land； either in property or in lease； and leases
are there said to be granted upon very moderate terms； and to be
sufficiently secured to the lessees。 The Chinese have little
respect for foreign trade。 Your beggarly commerce！ was the
language in which the Mandarins of Pekin used to talk to Mr。 de
Lange； the Russian envoy； concerning it。 Except with Japan； the
Chinese carry on； themselves； and in their own bottoms； little or
no foreign trade； and it is only into one or two ports of their
kingdom that they even admit the ships of foreign nations。
Foreign trade therefore is； in China； every way confined within a
much narrower circle than that to which it would naturally extend
itself； if more freedom was allowed to it； either in their own
ships； or in those of foreign nations。
Manufactures； as in a small bulk they frequently cont