the man versus the state-第13章

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　Government；　originally　identical　with　the　ethics　of　war；　must　long　remain　akin　to　them；　and　can　diverge　from　them　only　as　warlike　activities　and　preparations　become　less。　Current　evidence　shows　this。　At　present　on　the　Continent；　the　citizen　is　free　only　when　his　services　as　a　soldier　are　not　demanded；　and　during　the　rest　of　his　life　he　is　largely　enslaved　in　supporting　the　military　organization。　Even　among　ourselves；　a　serious　war　would；　by　the　necessitated　conscription；　suspend　the　liberties　of　large　numbers　and　trench　on　the　liberties　of　the　rest；　by　taking　from　them　through　taxes　whatever　supplies　were　needed　　that　is；　forcing　them　to　labour　so　many　days　more　for　the　State。　Inevitably　the　established　code　of　conduct　in　the　dealings　of　Governments　with　citizens；　must　be　allied　to　their　code　of　conduct　in　their　dealings　with　one　another。　　　　　　I　am　not；　under　the　title　of　this　article；　about　to　treat　of　the　trespasses　and　the　revenges　for　trespasses；　accounts　of　which　constitute　the　great　mass　of　history；　nor　to　trace　the　internal　inequities　which　have　ever　accompanied　the　eternal　inequities。　I　do　not　propose　here　to　catalogue　the　crimes　of　irresponsible　legislators；　beginning　with　that　of　King　Khufu；　the　stones　of　whose　vast　tomb　were　laid　in　the　bloody　sweat　of　tens　of　thousands　of　slaves　toiling　through　long　years　under　the　lash；　going　on　to　those　committed　by　conquerors；　Egyptian；　Assyrian；　Persian；　Macedonian；　Roman；　and　the　rest；　and　ending　with　those　of　Napoleon；　whose　ambition　to　set　his　foot　on　the　neck　of　the　civilized　world；　cost　not　less　than　two　million　lives。（3*）　Nor　do　I　propose　here　to　enumerate　those　sins　of　responsible　legislators　seen　in　the　long　list　of　laws　made　in　the　interests　of　dominant　classes　　a　list　coming　down　in　our　own　country　to　those　under　which　there　were　long　maintained　slavery　and　the　slave…trade；　torturing　nearly　40；000　negroes　annually　by　close　packing　during　a　tropical　voyage；　and　killing　a　large　percentage　of　them；　and　ending　with　that　of　the　corn…laws；　by　which；　says　Sir　Erskine　May；　〃to　ensure　high　rents；　it　had　been　decreed　that　multitudes　should　hunger。〃（4*）　　　　　　Not；　indeed；　that　a　presentation　of　the　conspicuous　misdeeds　of　legislators；　responsible　and　irresponsible；　would　be　useless。　It　would　have　several　uses　　one　of　them　relevant　to　the　truth　above　pointed　out。　Such　a　presentation　would　make　clear　how　that　identity　of　governmental　ethics　with　military　ethics　which　necessarily　exists　during　primitive　times；　when　the　army　is　simply　the　mobilized　society　and　the　society　is　the　quiescent　army；　continues　through　long　stages；　and　even　now　affects　in　great　degrees　our　law…proceedings　and　our　daily　lives。　Having；　for　instance；　shown　that　in　numerous　savage　tribes　the　judicial　function　of　the　chief　does　not　exist；　or　is　nominal；　and　that　very　generally　during　early　stages　of　European　civilization；　each　man　had　to　defend　himself　and　rectify　his　private　wrongs　as　best　he　might　　having　shown　that　in　medieval　times　the　right　of　private　war　among　members　of　the　military　order　was　brought　to　an　end；　not　because　the　head　ruler　thought　it　his　duty　to　arbitrate；　but　because　private　wars　interfered　with　the　efficiency　of　his　army　in　public　wars　having　shown　that　the　administration　of　justice　displayed　through　subsequent　ages　a　large　amount　of　its　primitive　nature；　in　trial　by　battle　carried　on　before　the　king　or　his　deputy　as　umpire；　and　which；　among　ourselves；　continued　nominally　to　be　an　alternative　form　of　trial　down　to　1819；　it　might　then　be　pointed　out　that　even　now　there　survives　trial　by　battle　under　another　form：　counsel　being　the　champions　and　purses　the　weapons。　In　civil　cases；　the　ruling　agency　cares　scarcely　more　than　of　old　about　rectifying　the　wrongs　of　the　injured；　but；　practically；　its　deputy　does　little　else　than　to　enforce　the　rules　of　the　fight：　the　result　being　less　a　question　of　equity　than　a　question　of　pecuniary　ability　and　forensic　skill。　Nay；　so　little　concern　for　the　administration　of　justice　is　shown　by　the　ruling　agency；　that　when；　by　legal　conflict　carried　on　in　the　presence　of　its　deputy；　the　combatants　have　been　pecuniarily　bled　even　to　the　extent　of　producing　prostration；　and　when　an　appeal　being　made　by　one　of　them　the　decision　is　reversed；　the　beaten　combatant　is　made　to　pay　for　the　blunders　of　the　deputy；　or　of　a　preceding　deputy；　and　not　unfrequently　the　wronged　man；　who　sought　protection　or　restitution；　is　taken　out　of　court　pecuniarily　dead。　　　　　　Adequately　done；　such　a　portrayal　of　governmental　misdeeds　of　commission　and　omission；　proving　that　the　partially…surviving　code　of　ethics　arising　in；　and　proper　to；　a　state　of　war；　still　vitiates　governmental　action；　might　greatly　moderate　the　hopes　of　those　who　are　anxious　to　extend　governmental　control。　After　observing　that　along　with　the　still…manifest　traits　of　that　primitive　political　structure　which　chronic　militancy　produces；　there　goes　a　still…manifest　survival　of　its　primitive　principles；　the　reformer　and　the　philanthropist　might　be　less　sanguine　in　their　anticipations　of　good　from　its　all…pervading　agency；　and　might　be　more　inclined　to　trust　agencies　of　a　non…governmental　kind。　　　　　　But　leaving　out　the　greater　part　of　the　large　topic　comprehended　under　the　title　of　this　article；　I　propose　here　to　deal　only　with　a　comparatively　small　remaining　part　　those　sins　of　legislators　which　are　not　generated　by　their　personal　ambitions　or　class　interests；　but　result　from　a　lack　of　the　study　by　which　they　are　morally　bound　to　prepare　themselves。　

　　　　A　druggist's　assistant　who；　after　listening　to　the　description　of　pains　which　he　mistakes　for　those　of　colic；　but　which　are　really　caused　by　inflammation　of　the　cecum；　prescribes　a　sharp　purgative　and　kills　the　patient；　is　found　guilty　of　manslaughter。　He　is　not　allowed　to　excuse　himself　on　the　ground　that　he　did　not　intend　harm　but　hoped　for　good。　The　plea　that　he　simply　made　a　mistake　in　his　diagnosis　is　not　entertained。　He　is　told　that　he　had　no　right　to　risk　disastrous　consequences　by　meddling　in　a　matter　concerning　which　his　knowledge　was　so　inadequate。　The　fact　that　he　was　ignorant　how　great　was　his　ignorance　is　not　accepted　in　bar　of　judgment。　It　is　tacitly　assumed　that　the　experience　common　to　all　should　have　taught　him　that　even　the　skilled；　and　much　more　the　unskilled；　make　mistakes　in　the　identification　of　disorders　and　in　the　appropriate　treatment；　and　that　having　disregarded　the　warning　derivable　from　common　experience；　he　was　answerable　for　the　consequences。　　　　　　We　measure　the　responsibilities　of　legislators　for　mischiefs　they　may　do；　in　a　much　more　lenient　fashion。　In　most　cases；　so　far　from　thinking　of　them　as　deserving　punishment　for　causing　disasters　by　laws　ignorantly　enacted；　we　scarcely　think　of　them　as　deserving　reprobation。　It　is　held　that　common　experience　should　have　taught　the　druggist's　assistant；　untrained　as　he　is；　not　to　interfere；　but　it　is　not　held　that　common　experience　should　have　taught　the　legislator　not　to　interfere　til1　he　has　trained　himself　Though　multitudinous　facts　are　before　him　in　the　recorded　legislation　of　our　own　country　and　of　other　countries；　which　should　impress　on　him　the　immense　evils　caused　by　wrong　treatment；　he　is　not　condemned　for　disregarding　these　warnings　against　rash　meddling。　Contrariwise；　it　is　thought　meritorious　in　him　when　　perhaps　lately　from　college；　perhaps　fresh　from　keeping　a　pack　of　hounds　which　made　him　popular　in　his　county；　perhaps　emerging　from　a　provincial　town　where　he　acquired　a　fortune；　perhaps　rising　from　the　bar　at　which　he　has　gained　a　name　as　an　advocate　　he　enters　Parliament；　and　forthwith；　in　quite　a　light…hearted　way；　begins　to　aid　or　hinder　this　or　that　means　of　operating　on　the　body　politic。　In　this　case　there　is　no　occasion　even　to　make　for　him　the　excuse　that　he　does　not　know　how　little　he　knows；　for　the　public　at　large　agrees　with　him　in　thinking　it　needless　that　he　should　know　anything　more　than　what　the　debates　on　the　proposed　measures　tell　him。　　　　　　And　yet　the　mischiefs　wrought　by　uninstructed　law…making；　enormous　in　their　amount　as　compared　with　those　caused　by　uninstructed　medical　treatment；　are　conspicuous　to　all　who　do　but　glance　over　its　history。　The　reader　must　pardon　me　while　I　recall　a　few　familiar　instances。　Century　after　century；　statesmen　went　on　enacting　usury　laws　which　made　worse　the　condition　of　the　debtor　　raising　the　rate　of　interest　〃from　five　to　six　when　intending　to　reduce　it　to　four；〃（5*）　as　under　Louis　XV　and　indirectly　producing　undreamt　of　evils　of　many　kinds；　such　as　preventing　the　reproductive　use　of　spare　capital；　and　〃burdening　the　small　proprietors　with　a　multitude　of　perpetual　services。〃（6*）　So；　too；　the　endeavours　which　in　England　continued　through　five　hundred　years　to　stop　forestalling；　and　which　in　France；　as　Arthur　Young　witnessed；　prevented　any　one　from　buying　〃more　than　two　bushels　of　wheat　at　market；〃（7*）　went　on　generation　after　generation　increasing　the　miseries　and　mortality　due　to　dearth；　for；　as　everybody　now　knows；　the　wholesale　dealer；　who　was　in　the　statute　〃De　Pistoribus〃　vituperated　as　〃an　open　oppressor　of　poor　people；〃（8*）　is　simply　one　whose　function　it　is　to　equalize　the　supply　of　a　commodity　by　checking　unduly　rapid　consumption。　Of　ki