the man versus the state-第17章

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ayers　made　to　them；　there　is　nothing　which　their　wisdom　and　their　power　cannot　compass。　

The　reply　to　all　this　will　doubtless　be　that　nothing　better　than　guidance　by　〃collective　wisdom〃　can　be　had　　that　the　select　men　of　the　nation；　led　by　a　re…selected　few；　bring　their　best　powers；　enlightened　by　all　the　knowledge　of　the　time；　to　bear　on　the　matters　before　them。　〃What　more　would　you　have？〃　will　be　the　question　asked　by　most。　　　　　My　answer　is　that　this　best　knowledge　of　the　time　with　which　legislators　are　said　to　come　prepared　for　their　duties；　is　a　knowledge　of　which　the　greater　part　is　obviously　irrelevant；　and　that　they　are　blameworthy　for　not　seeing　what　is　the　relevant　knowledge。　No　amount　of　the　linguistic　acquirements　by　which　many　of　them　are　distinguished　will　help　their　judgments　in　the　least；　nor　will　they　be　appreciably　helped　by　the　literatures　these　acquirements　open　to　them。　Political　experiences　and　speculations　coming　from　small　ancient　societies；　through　philosophers　who　assume　that　war　is　the　normal　state；　that　slavery　is　alike　needful　and　just；　and　that　women　must　remain　in　perpetual　tutelage；　can　yield　them　but　small　aid　in　judging　how　Acts　of　Parliament　will　work　in　great　nations　of　modern　types。　They　may　ponder　on　the　doings　of　all　the　great　men　by　whom；　according　to　the　Carlylean　theory；　society　is　framed；　and　they　may　spend　years　over　those　accounts　of　international　conflicts；　and　treacheries；　and　intrigues；　and　treaties；　which　fill　historical　works；　without　being　much　nearer　understanding　the　how　and　the　why　of　social　structures　and　actions；　and　the　ways　in　which　laws　affect　them。　Nor　does　such　information　as　is　picked　up　at　the　factory；　on　'Change；　or　in　the　justice　room；　go　far　towards　the　required　preparation。　　　　　　That　which　is　really　needed　is　a　systematic　study　of　natural　causation　as　displayed　among　human　beings　socially　aggregated。　Though　a　distinct　consciousness　of　causation　is　the　last　trait　which　intellectual　progress　brings　　though　with　the　savage　a　simple　mechanical　cause　is　not　conceived　as　such　　though　even　among　the　Greeks　the　flight　of　a　spear　was　thought　of　as　guided　by　a　god　　though　from　their　times　down　almost　to　our　own；　epidemics　have　been　habitually　regarded　as　of　supernatural　origin　　and　though　among　social　phenomena；　the　most　complex　of　all；　causal　relations　may　be　expected　to　continue　longest　unrecognized；　yet　in　our　days；　the　existence　of　such　causal　relations　has　become　clear　enough　to　force　on　all　who　think；　the　inference　that　before　meddling　with　them　they　should　be　diligently　studied。　The　mere　facts；　now　familiar；　that　there　is　a　connexion　between　the　numbers　of　births；　deaths；　and　marriages；　and　the　price　of　corn；　and　that　in　the　same　society　during　the　same　generation；　the　ratio　of　crime　to　population　varies　within　narrow　limits；　should　be　sufficient　to　make　all　see　that　human　desires；　using　as　guide　such　intellect　as　is　joined　with　them；　act　with　approximate　uniformity。　It　should　be　inferred　that　among　social　causes；　those　initiated　by　legislation；　similarly　operating　with　an　average　regularity；　must　not　only　change　men's　actions；　but；　by　consequence；　change　their　natures　probably　in　ways　not　intended。　There　should　be　recognition　of　the　fact　that　social　causation；　more　than　all　other　causation；　is　a　fructifying　causation；　and　it　should　be　seen　that　indirect　and　remote　effects　are　no　less　inevitable　than　proximate　effects。　I　do　not　mean　that　there　is　denial　of　these　statements　and　inferences。　But　there　are　beliefs　and　beliefs　　some　which　are　held　nominally；　some　which　influence　conduct　in　small　degrees；　some　which　sway　it　irresistibly　under　all　circumstances；　and　unhappily　the　beliefs　of　lawmakers　respecting　causation　in　social　affairs；　are　of　the　superficial　sort。　Let　us　look　at　some　of　the　truths　which　all　tacitly　admit；　but　which　scarcely　any　take　deliberate　account　of　in　legislation。　　　　　　There　is　the　indisputable　fact　that　each　human　being　is　in　a　certain　degree　modifiable　both　physically　and　mentally。　Every　theory　of　education；　every　discipline；　from　that　of　the　arithmetician　to　that　of　the　prize…fighter；　every　proposed　reward　for　virtue　or　punishment　for　vice；　implies　the　belief；　embodied　in　sundry　proverbs；　that　the　use　or　disuse　of　each　faculty；　bodily　or　mental；　is　followed　by　an　adaptive　change　in　it　　loss　of　power　or　gain　of　power；　according　to　demand。　　　　　　There　is　the　fact；　also　in　its　broader　manifestations　universally　recognized；　that　modifications　of　Nature　in　one　way　or　other　produced；　are　inheritable。　No　one　denies　that　by　the　accumulation　of　small　changes；　generation　after　generation；　constitution　fits　itself　to　conditions；　so　that　a　climate　which　is　fatal　to　other　races　is　innocuous　to　the　adapted　race。　No　one　denies　that　peoples　who　belong　to　the　same　original　stock　but　have　spread　into　different　habitats　where　they　have　led　different　lives；　have　acquired　in　course　of　time　different　aptitudes　and　different　tendencies。　No　one　denies　that　under　new　conditions　new　national　characters　are　even　now　being　moulded；　as　witness　the　Americans。　And　if　no　one　denies　a　process　of　adaptation　everywhere　and　always　going　on；　it　is　a　manifest　implication　that　adaptive　modifications　must　be　set　up　by　every　change　of　social　conditions。　　　　　　To　which　there　comes　the　undeniable　corollary　that　every　law　which　serves　to　alter　men's　modes　of　action　　compelling；　or　restraining；　or　aiding；　in　new　ways　　so　affects　them　as　to　cause　in　course　of　time　adjustments　of　their　natures。　Beyond　any　mediate　effect　wrought；　there　is　the　remote　effect；　wholly　ignored　by　most　a　re…moulding　of　the　average　character：　a　re…moulding　which　may　be　of　a　desirable　kind　or　of　an　undesirable　kind；　but　which　in　any　case　is　the　most　important　of　the　results　to　be　considered。　　　　　　Other　general　truths　which　the　citizen；　and　still　more　the　legislator；　ought　to　contemplate　until　they　become　wrought　into　his　intellectual　fabric；　are　disclosed　when　we　ask　how　social　activities　are　produced；　and　when　we　recognize　the　obvious　answer　that　they　are　the　aggregate　results　of　the　desires　of　individuals　who　are　severally　seeking　satisfactions；　and　ordinarily　pursuing　the　ways　which；　with　their　pre…existing　habits　and　thoughts；　seem　the　easiest　　following　the　lines　of　least　resistance：　the　truths　of　political　economy　being　so　many　sequences。　It　needs　no　proving　that　social　structures　and　social　actions　must　in　some　way　or　other　be　the　outcome　of　human　emotions　guided　by　ideas　　either　those　of　ancestors　or　those　of　living　men。　And　that　the　right　interpretation　of　social　phenomena　is　to　be　found　in　the　co…operation　of　these　factors　from　generation　to　generation；　follows　inevitably。　　　　　　Such　an　interpretation　soon　brings　us　to　the　inference　that　of　the　aggregate　results　of　men's　desires　seeking　their　gratifications；　those　which　have　prompted　their　private　activities　and　their　spontaneous　co…operations；　have　done　much　more　towards　social　development　than　those　which　have　worked　through　governmental　agencies。　That　abundant　crops　now　grow　where　once　only　wild　berries　could　be　gathered；　is　due　to　the　pursuit　of　individual　satisfactions　through　many　centuries。　The　progress　from　wigwams　to　good　houses　has　resulted　from　wishes　to　increase　personal　welfare；　and　towns　have　arisen　under　the　like　promptings。　Beginning　with　traffic　at　gatherings　on　occasions　of　religious　festivals；　the　trading　organization；　now　so　extensive　and　complex；　has　been　produced　entirely　by　men's　efforts　to　achieve　their　private　ends。　Perpetually　Governments　have　thwarted　and　deranged　the　growth；　but　have　in　no　way　furthered　it；　save　by　partially　discharging　their　proper　function　and　maintaining　social　order。　So；　too；　with　those　advances　of　knowledge　and　those　improvements　of　appliances；　by　which　these　structural　changes　and　these　increasing　activities　have　been　made　possible。　It　is　not　to　the　State　that　we　owe　the　multitudinous　useful　inventions　from　the　spade　to　the　telephone；　it　was　not　the　State　which　made　possible　extended　navigation　by　a　developed　astronomy；　it　was　not　the　State　which　made　the　discoveries　in　physics；　chemistry；　and　the　rest；　which　guide　modern　manufacturers；　it　was　not　the　State　which　devised　the　machinery　for　producing　fabrics　of　every　kind；　for　transferring　men　and　things　from　place　to　place；　and　for　ministering　in　a　thousand　ways　to　our　comforts。　The　world…wide　transactions　conducted　in　merchants'　offices；　the　rush　of　traffic　filling　our　streets；　the　retail　distributing　system　which　brings　everything　within　easy　reach　and　delivers　the　necessaries　of　life　daily　at　our　doors；　are　not　of　governmental　origin。　All　these　are　results　of　the　spontaneous　activities　of　citizens；　separate　or　grouped。　Nay；　to　these　spontaneous　activities　Governments　owe　the　very　means　of　performing　their　duties。　Divest　the　political　machinery　of　all　those　aids　which　Science　and　Art　have　yielded　it　　leave　it　with　those　only　which　State…officials　have　invented；　and　its　functions　would　cease。　The　very　language　in　which　its　laws　are　registered　and　the　orders　of　its　agents　daily　given；　is　an　instrument　not　in　the　remotest　degree　due　to　the　legislator；　but　is　one　which　has　unawares　grown　up　during　men's　intercourse　while　pursuing　their　personal　satisfactions。　　　　　　And