the man versus the state-第2章

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h　by　the　Reform　Bill　and　the　Municipal　Reform　Bill；　so　that　alike　generally　and　locally；　the　many　were　less　under　the　coercion　of　the　few。　Dissenters；　no　longer　obliged　to　submit　to　the　ecclesiastical　form　of　marriage；　were　made　free　to　wed　by　a　purely　civil　rite。　Later　came　diminution　and　removal　of　restraints　on　the　buying　of　foreign　commodities　and　the　employment　of　foreign　vessels　and　foreign　sailors；　and　later　still　the　removal　of　those　burdens　on　the　press　which　were　originally　imposed　to　hinder　the　diffusion　of　opinion。　And　of　all　these　changes　it　is　unquestionable　that；　whether　made　or　not　by　Liberals　themselves；　they　were　made　in　conformity　with　principles　professed　and　urged　by　Liberals。　　　　　　But　why　do　I　enumerate　facts　so　well　known　to　all？　Simply　because；　as　intimated　at　the　outset；　it　seems　needful　to　remind　everybody　what　Liberalism　was　in　the　past；　that　they　may　perceive　its　unlikeness　to　the　so…called　Liberalism　of　the　present。　It　would　be　inexcusable　to　name　these　various　measures　for　the　purpose　of　pointing　out　the　character　common　to　them；　were　it　not　that　in　our　day　men　have　forgotten　their　common　character。　They　do　not　remember　that；　in　one　or　other　way；　all　these　truly　Liberal　changes　diminished　compulsory　co…operation　throughout　social　life　and　increased　voluntary　cooperation。　They　have　forgotten　that；　in　one　direction　or　other；　they　diminished　the　range　of　governmental　authority；　and　increased　the　area　within　which　each　citizen　may　act　unchecked。　They　have　lost　sight　of　the　truth　that　in　past　times　Liberalism　habitually　stood　for　individual　freedom　versus　State…coercion。　　　　　　And　now　comes　the　inquiry　　How　is　it　that　Liberals　have　lost　sight　of　this？　How　is　it　that　Liberalism；　getting　more　and　more　into　power；　has　grown　more　and　more　coercive　in　its　legislation？　How　is　it　that；　either　directly　through　its　own　majorities　or　indirectly　through　aid　given　in　such　cases　to　the　majorities　of　its　opponents；　Liberalism　has　to　an　increasing　extent　adopted　the　policy　of　dictating　the　actions　of　citizens；　and；　by　consequence；　diminishing　the　range　throughout　which　their　actions　remain　free？　How　are　we　to　explain　this　spreading　confusion　of　thought　which　has　led　it；　in　pursuit　of　what　appears　to　be　public　good；　to　invert　the　method　by　which　in　earlier　days　it　achieved　public　good？　　　　　　Unaccountable　as　at　first　sight　this　unconscious　change　of　policy　seems；　we　shall　find　that　it　has　arisen　quite　naturally。　Given　the　unanalytical　thought　ordinarily　brought　to　bear　on　political　matters；　and；　under　existing　conditions；　nothing　else　was　to　be　expected。　To　make　this　clear　some　parenthetic　explanations　are　needful。　

　　　　From　the　lowest　to　the　highest　creatures；　intelligence　progresses　by　acts　of　discrimination；　and　it　continues　so　to　progress　among　men；　from　the　most　ignorant　to　the　most　cultured。　To　class　rightly　　to　put　in　the　same　group　things　which　are　of　essentially　the　same　natures；　and　in　other　groups　things　of　natures　essentially　different　is　the　fundamental　condition　to　right　guidance　of　actions。　Beginning　with　rudimentary　vision；　which　gives　warning　that　some　large　opaque　body　is　passing　near　（just　as　closed　eyes　turned　to　the　window；　perceiving　the　shade　caused　by　a　hand　put　before　them；　tells　us　of　something　moving　in　front）；　the　advance　is　to　developed　vision；　which；　by　exactly…appreciated　combinations　of　forms；　colours；　and　motions；　identifies　objects　at　great　distances　as　prey　or　enemies；　and　so　makes　it　possible　to　improve　the　adjustments　of　conduct　for　securing　food　or　evading　death。　That　progressing　perception　of　differences　and　consequent　greater　correctness　of　classing；　constitutes；　under　one　of　its　chief　aspects；　the　growth　of　intelligence；　is　equally　seen　when　we　pass　from　the　relatively　simple　physical　vision　to　the　relatively　complex　intellectual　vision　　the　vision　through　the　agency　of　which；　things　previously　grouped　by　certain　eternal　resemblances　or　by　certain　extrinsic　circumstances；　come　to　be　more　truly　grouped　in　conformity　with　their　intrinsic　structures　or　natures。　Undeveloped　intellectual　vision　is　just　as　indiscriminating　and　erroneous　in　its　classings　as　undeveloped　physical　vision。　Instance　the　early　arrangement　of　plants　into　the　groups；　trees；　shrubs；　and　herbs：　size；　the　most　conspicuous　trait；　being　the　ground　of　distinction；　and　the　assemblages　formed　being　such　as　united　many　plants　extremely　unlike　in　their　natures；　and　separated　others　that　are　near　akin。　Or　still　better；　take　the　popular　classification　which　puts　together　under　the　same　general　name；　fish　and　shell…fish；　and　under　the　sub…name；　shell…fish；　puts　together　crustaceans　and　molluscs；　nay；　which　goes　further；　and　regards　as　fish　the　cetacean　mammals。　Partly　because　of　the　likeness　in　their　modes　of　life　as　inhabiting　the　water；　and　partly　because　of　some　general　resemblance　in　their　flavours；　creatures　that　are　in　their　essential　natures　far　more　widely　separated　than　a　fish　is　from　a　bird；　are　associated　in　the　same　class　and　in　the　same　sub…class。　　　　　　Now　the　general　truth　thus　exemplified；　holds　throughout　those　higher　ranges　of　intellectual　vision　concerned　with　things　not　presentable　to　the　senses；　and；　among　others；　such　things　as　political　institutions　and　political　measures。　For　when　thinking　of　these；　too；　the　results　of　inadequate　intellectual　faculty；　or　inadequate　culture　of　it；　or　both；　are　erroneous　classings　and　consequent　erroneous　conclusions。　Indeed；　the　liability　to　error　is　here　much　greater；　since　the　things　with　which　the　intellect　is　concerned　do　not　admit　of　examination　in　the　same　easy　way。　You　cannot　touch　or　see　a　political　institution：　it　can　be　known　only　by　an　effort　of　constructive　imagination。　Neither　can　you　apprehend　by　physical　perception　a　political　measure：　this　no　less　requires　a　process　of　mental　representation　by　which　its　elements　are　put　together　in　thought；　and　the　essential　nature　of　the　combination　conceived。　Here；　therefore；　still　more　than　in　the　cases　above　named；　defective　intellectual　vision　is　shown　in　grouping　by　eternal　characters；　or　extrinsic　circumstances。　How　institutions　are　wrongly　classed　from　this　cause；　we　see　in　the　common　notion　that　the　Roman　Republic　was　a　popular　form　of　government。　Look　into　the　early　ideas　of　the　French　revolutionists　who　aimed　at　an　ideal　state　of　freedom；　and　you　find　that　the　political　forms　and　deeds　of　the　Romans　were　their　models；　and　even　now　a　historian　might　be　named　who　instances　the　corruptions　of　the　Roman　Republic　as　showing　us　what　popular　government　leads　to。　Yet　the　resemblance　between　the　institutions　of　the　Romans　and　free　institutions　properly　so…called；　was　less　than　that　between　a　shark　and　a　porpoise　　a　resemblance　of　general　eternal　form　accompanying　widely　different　internal　structures。　For　the　Roman　Government　was　that　of　a　small　oligarchy　within　a　larger　oligarchy：　the　members　of　each　being　unchecked　autocrats。　A　society　in　which　the　relatively　few　men　who　had　political　power；　and　were　in　a　qualified　sense　free；　were　so　many　petty　despots；　holding　not　only　slaves　and　dependents　but　even　children　in　a　bondage　no　less　absolute　than　that　in　which　they　held　their　cattle；　was；　by　its　intrinsic　nature；　more　nearly　allied　to　an　ordinary　despotism　than　to　a　society　of　citizens　politically　equal。　　　　　　Passing　now　to　our　special　question；　we　may　understand　the　kind　of　confusion　in　which　Liberalism　has　lost　itself；　and　the　origin　of　those　mistaken　classings　of　political　measures　which　have　misled　it　classings；　as　we　shall　see；　by　conspicuous　eternal　traits　instead　of　by　internal　natures。　For　what；　in　the　popular　apprehension　and　in　the　apprehension　of　those　who　effected　them；　were　the　changes　made　by　Liberals　in　the　past？　They　were　abolitions　of　grievances　suffered　by　the　people；　or　by　portions　of　them：　this　was　the　common　trait　they　had　which　most　impressed　itself　on　men's　minds。　They　were　mitigations　of　evils　which　had　directly　or　indirectly　been　felt　by　large　classes　of　citizens；　as　causes　of　misery　or　as　hindrances　to　happiness。　And　since；　in　the　minds　of　most；　a　rectified　evil　is　equivalent　to　an　achieved　good；　these　measures　came　to　be　thought　of　as　so　many　positive　benefits；　and　the　welfare　of　the　many　came　to　be　conceived　alike　by　Liberal　statesmen　and　Liberal　voters　as　the　aim　of　Liberalism。　Hence　the　confusion。　The　gaining　of　a　popular　good；　being　the　eternal　conspicuous　trait　common　to　Liberal　measures　in　earlier　days　（then　in　each　case　gained　by　a　relaxation　of　restraints）；　it　has　happened　that　popular　good　has　come　to　be　sought　by　Liberals；　not　as　an　end　to　be　indirectly　gained　by　relaxations　of　restraints；　but　as　the　end　to　be　directly　gained。　And　seeking　to　gain　it　directly；　they　have　used　methods　intrinsically　opposed　to　those　originally　used。　　　　　　And　now；　having　seen　how　this　reversal　of　policy　has　arisen　（or　partial　reversal；　I　should　say；　for　the　recent　Burials　Act　and　the　efforts　to　remove　all　remaining　religious　inequalities；　show　continuance　of　the　original　policy　in　certain　directions）；　let　us　proceed　to　contemplate　the　extent　to　which　it　has　been　carried　during　recent　times；　and　the　still　greater　extent　to　which　the　future　will　see　it　carried　if　current　ideas　and　feelings　continue　to　predominate。