the man versus the state-第26章

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s　social　organization　advances；　the　central　ruling　power　undertakes　more　and　more　to　secure　to　individuals　their　personal　safety；　the　safety　of　their　possessions；　and；　to　some　extent；　the　enforcement　of　their　claims　established　by　contract。　Originally　concerned　almost　exclusively　with　defence　of　the　society　as　a　whole　against　other　societies；　or　with　conducting　its　attack　on　other　societies；　Government　has　come　more　and　more　to　discharge　the　function　of　defending　individuals　against　one　another。　It　needs　but　to　recall　the　days　when　men　habitually　carried　weapons；　or　to　bear　in　mind　the　greater　safety　to　person　and　property　achieved　by　improved　police…administration　during　our　own　time；　or　to　note　the　increased　facilities　now　given　for　recovering　small　debts；　to　see　that　the　insuring　to　each　individual　the　unhindered　pursuit　of　the　objects　of　life；　within　limits　set　by　others'　like　pursuits；　is　more　and　more　recognized　as　a　duty　of　the　State。　In　other　words；　along　with　social　progress；　there　goes　not　only　a　fuller　recognition　of　these　which　we　call　natural　rights；　but　also　a　better　enforcement　of　them　by　Government：　Government　becomes　more　and　more　the　servant　to　these　essential　pre…requisites　for　individual　welfare。　　　　　　An　allied　and　still　more　significant　change　has　accompanied　this。　In　early　stages；　at　the　same　time　that　the　State　failed　to　protect　the　individual　against　aggression；　it　was　itself　an　aggressor　in　multitudinous　ways。　Those　ancient　societies　which　progressed　enough　to　leave　records；　having　all　been　conquering　societies；　show　us　everywhere　the　traits　of　the　militant　regime。　As；　for　the　effectual　organization　of　fighting　bodies；　the　soldiers；　absolutely　obedient；　must　act　independently　only　when　commanded　to　do　it；　so；　for　the　effectual　organization　of　fighting　societies；　citizens　must　have　their　individualities　subordinated。　Private　claims　are　over…ridden　by　public　claims；　and　the　subject　loses　much　of　his　freedom　of　action。　One　result　is　that　the　system　of　regimentation；　pervading　the　society　as　well　as　the　army；　causes　detailed　regulation　of　conduct。　The　dictates　of　the　ruler；　sanctified　by　ascription　of　them　to　his　divine　ancestor；　are　unrestrained　by　any　conception　of　individual　liberty；　and　they　specify　men's　actions　to　an　unlimited　extent　　down　to　kinds　of　food　eaten；　modes　of　preparing　them；　shaping　of　beards；　fringing　of　dresses；　sowing　of　grain；　etc。　This　omnipresent　control；　which　the　ancient　Eastern　nations　in　general　exhibited；　was　exhibited　also　in　large　measure　by　the　Greeks；　and　was　carried　to　its　greatest　pitch　in　the　most　militant　city；　Sparta。　Similarly　during　medieval　days　throughout　Europe；　characterized　by　chronic　warfare　with　its　appropriate　political　forms　and　ideas；　there　were　scarcely　any　bounds　to　Governmental　interference：　agriculture；　manufactures；　trade；　were　regulated　in　detail；　religious　beliefs　and　observances　were　imposed；　and　rulers　said　by　whom　alone　furs　might　be　worn；　silver　used；　books　issued；　pigeons　kept；　etc。　etc。　But　along　with　increase　of　industrial　activities；　and　implied　substitution　of　the　regime　of　contract　for　the　regime　of　status；　and　growth　of　associated　sentiments；　there　went　（until　the　recent　reaction　accompanying　reversion　to　militant　activity）　a　decrease　of　meddling　with　people's　doings。　Legislation　gradually　ceased　to　regulate　the　cropping　of　fields；　or　dictate　the　ratio　of　cattle　to　acreage；　or　specify　modes　of　manufacture　and　materials　to　be　used；　or　fix　wages　and　prices；　or　interfere　with　dresses　and　games　（except　where　there　was　gambling）；　or　put　bounties　and　penalties　on　imports　or　exports；　or　prescribe　men's　beliefs；　religious　or　political；　or　prevent　them　from　combining　as　they　pleased；　or　travelling　where　they　liked。　That　is　to　say；　throughout　a　large　range　of　conduct；　the　right　of　the　citizen　to　uncontrolled　action　has　been　made　good　against　the　pretensions　of　the　State　to　control　him。　While　the　ruling　agency　has　increasingly　helped　him　to　exclude　intruders　from　that　private　sphere　in　which　he　pursues　the　objects　of　life；　it　has　itself　retreated　from　that　sphere；　or；　in　other　words　　decreased　its　intrusions。　　　　　　Not　even　yet　have　we　noted　all　the　classes　of　facts　which　tell　the　same　story。　It　is　told　afresh　in　the　improvements　and　reforms　of　law　itself；　as　well　as　in　the　admissions　and　assertions　of　those　who　have　effected　them。　〃So　early　as　the　fifteenth　century；〃　says　Professor　Pollock；　〃we　find　a　common…law　judge　declaring　that；　as　in　a　case　unprovided　for　by　known　rules　the　civilians　and　canonists　devise　a　new　rule　according　to　'the　law　of　nature　which　is　the　ground　of　all　laws；'　the　Courts　of　Westminster　can　and　will　do　the　like。〃（23*）　Again；　our　system　of　Equity；　introduced　and　developed　as　it　was　to　make　up　for　the　shortcomings　of　Common…law；　or　rectify　its　inequities；　proceeded　throughout　on　a　recognition　of　men's　claims　considered　as　existing　apart　from　legal　warrant。　And　the　changes　of　law　now　from　time　to　time　made　after　resistance；　are　similarly　made　in　pursuance　of　current　ideas　concerning　the　requirements　of　justice：　ideas　which；　instead　of　being　derived　from　the　law；　are　opposed　to　the　law。　For　example；　that　recent　Act　which　gives　to　a　married　woman　a　right　of　property　in　her　own　earnings；　evidently　originated　in　the　consciousness　that　the　natural　connexion　between　labour　expended　and　benefit　enjoyed；　is　one　which　should　be　maintained　in　all　cases。　The　reformed　law　did　not　create　the　right；　but　recognition　of　the　right　created　the　reformed　law。　　　　　　Thus；　historical　evidences　of　five　different　kinds　unite　in　teaching　that；　confused　as　are　the　popular　notions　concerning　rights；　and　including；　as　they　do；　a　great　deal　which　should　be　excluded；　yet　they　shadow　forth　a　truth。　　　　　　It　remains　now　to　consider　the　original　source　of　this　truth。　In　a　previous　paper　I　have　spoken　of　the　open　secret；　that　there　can　be　no　social　phenomena　but　what；　if　we　analyse　them　to　the　bottom；　bring　us　down　to　the　laws　of　life；　and　that　there　can　be　no　true　understanding　of　them　without　reference　to　the　laws　of　life。　Let　us；　then；　transfer　this　question　of　natural　rights　from　the　court　of　politics　to　the　court　of　science　　the　science　of　life。　The　reader　need　feel　no　alarm：　its　simplest　and　most　obvious　facts　will　suffice。　We　will　contemplate　first　the　general　conditions　to　individual　life；　and　then　the　general　conditions　to　social　life。　We　shall　find　that　both　yield　the　same　verdict。　

Animal　life　involves　waste；　waste　must　be　met　by　repair；　repair　implies　nutrition。　Again；　nutrition　presupposes　obtainment　of　food；　food　cannot　be　got　without　powers　of　prehension；　and；　usually；　of　locomotion；　and　that　these　powers　may　achieve　their　ends；　there　must　be　freedom　to　move　about。　If　you　shut　up　a　mammal　in　a　small　space；　or　tie　its　limbs　together；　or　take　from　it　the　food　it　has　procured；　you　eventually；　by　persistence　in　one　or　other　of　these　courses；　cause　its　death。　Passing　a　certain　point；　hindrance　to　the　fulfilment　of　these　requirements　is　fatal。　And　all　this；　which　holds　of　the　higher　animals　at　large；　of　course　holds　of　man。　　　　　　If　we　adopt　pessimism　as　a　creed；　and　with　it　accept　the　implication　that　life　in　general　being　an　evil　should　be　put　an　end　to；　then　there　is　no　ethical　warrant　for　these　actions　by　which　life　is　maintained：　the　whole　question　drops。　But　if　we　adopt　either　the　optimist　view　or　the　meliorist　view　　if　we　say　that　life　on　the　whole　brings　more　pleasure　than　pain；　or　that　it　is　on　the　way　to　become　such　that　it　will　yield　more　pleasure　than　pain；　then　these　actions　by　which　life　is　maintained　are　justified；　and　there　results　a　warrant　for　the　freedom　to　perform　them。　Those　who　hold　that　life　is　valuable；　hold；　by　implication；　that　men　ought　not　to　be　prevented　from　caring　on　life…sustaining　activities。　In　other　words；　if　it　is　said　to　be　〃right〃　that　they　should　carry　them　on；　then；　by　permutation；　we　get　the　assertion　that　they　〃have　a　right〃　to　carry　them　on。　Clearly　the　conception　of　〃natural　rights〃　originates　in　recognition　of　the　truth　that　if　life　is　justifiable；　there　must　be　a　justification　for　the　performance　of　acts　essential　to　its　preservation；　and；　therefore；　a　justification　for　those　liberties　and　claims　which　make　such　acts　possible。　　　　　　But　being　true　of　other　creatures　as　of　man；　this　is　a　proposition　lacking　ethical　character。　Ethical　character　arises　only　with　the　distinction　between　what　the　individual　may　do　in　caring　on　his　life…sustaining　activities；　and　what　he　may　not　do。　This　distinction　obviously　results　from　the　presence　of　his　fellows。　Among　those　who　are　in　close　proximity；　or　even　at　some　distance　apart；　the　doings　of　each　are　apt　to　interfere　with　the　doings　of　others；　and　in　the　absence　of　proof　that　some　may　do　what　they　will　without　limit；　while　others　may　not；　mutual　limitation　is　necessitated。　The　non…ethical　form　of　the　right　to　pursue　ends；　passes　into　the　ethical　form；　when　there　is　recognized　the　difference　between　acts　which　can　be　performed　without　transgressing　the　limits；　and　others　which　cannot　be　so　performed。　　　　　　This；　which　is　the　a　priori　conclusion；　is　the　conclusion　yielded　a　posteriori；　when　we　study　the　doings　of　the　uncivilized。　In　its　vaguest　form；　mutual　limitation　of　spheres　of　act