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again； and so by prudent and well…bred and tolerant qualifying of every
assertion； neither affirming too much； nor denying too much； keep their
minds in a wholesomeor unwholesomestate of equilibrium； as stagnant
pools are kept； that everything may have free toleration to rot undisturbed。
These hapless caricaturists of the dialectic of Plato； and the logic of
Aristotle； careless of any vital principles or real results； ready enough to
use fallacies each for their own party； and openly proud of their success in
doing so； were assisted by worthy compeers of an outwardly opposite tone
of thought； the Cyrenaics； Theodorus and Hegesias。 With their clique； as
with their master Aristippus； the senses were the only avenues to
knowledge； man was the measure of all things； and 〃happiness our being's
end and aim。〃 Theodorus was surnamed the Atheist； and； it seems； not
without good reason； for he taught that there was no absolute or eternal
difference between good and evil； nothing really disgraceful in crimes； no
divine ground for laws； which according to him had been invented by men
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to prevent fools from making themselves disagreeable； on which theory；
laws must be confessed to have been in all ages somewhat of a failure。
He seems to have been； like his master； an impudent light…hearted fellow；
who took life easily enough； laughed at patriotism； and all other high…
flown notions； boasted that the world was his country； and was no doubt
excellent after…dinner company for the great king。 Hegesias； his fellow
Cyrenaic； was a man of a darker and more melancholic temperament； and
while Theodorus contented himself with preaching a comfortable
selfishness； and obtaining pleasure； made it rather his study to avoid pain。
Doubtless both their theories were popular enough at Alexandria； as they
were in France during the analogous period； the Siecle Louis Quinze。
The 〃Contrat Social；〃 and the rest of their doctrines； moral and
metaphysical； will always have their admirers on earth； as long as that
variety of the human species exists for whose especial behoof Theodorus
held that laws were made； and the whole form of thought met with great
approbation in after years at Rome； where Epicurus carried it to its highest
perfection。 After that； under the pressure of a train of rather severe
lessons； which Gibbon has detailed in his 〃Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire；〃 little or nothing was heard of it； save sotto voce； perhaps； at the
Papal courts of the sixteenth century。 To revive it publicly； or at least as
much of it as could be borne by a world now for seventeen centuries
Christian； was the glory of the eighteenth century。 The moral scheme of
Theodorus has now nearly vanished among us； at least as a confessed
creed； and； in spite of the authority of Mr。 Locke's great and good name；
his metaphysical scheme is showing signs of a like approaching
disappearance。 Let us hope that it may be a speedy one； for if the senses
be the only avenues to knowledge； if man be the measure of all things； and
if law have not； as Hooker says； her fount and home in the very bosom of
God himself； then was Homer's Zeus right in declaring man to be 〃the
most wretched of all the beasts of the field。〃
And yet one cannot help looking with a sort of awe （I dare not call it
respect） at that melancholic faithless Hegesias。 Doubtless he； like his
compeers； and indeed all Alexandria for three hundred years； cultivated
philosophy with no more real purpose than it was cultivated by the
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graceless beaux…esprits of Louis XV。's court； and with as little practical
effect on morality； but of this Hegesias alone it stands written； that his
teaching actually made men do something； and moreover； do the most
solemn and important thing which any man can do； excepting always
doing right。 I must confess； however； that the result of his teaching took
so unexpected a form； that the reigning Ptolemy； apparently Philadelphus；
had to interfere with the sacred right of every man to talk as much
nonsense as he likes； and forbade Hegesias to teach at Alexandria。 For
Hegesias； a Cyrenaic like Theodorus； but a rather more morose pedant
than that saucy and happy scoffer； having discovered that the great end of
man was to avoid pain； also discovered （his digestion being probably in a
disordered state） that there was so much more pain than pleasure in the
world； as to make it a thoroughly disagreeable place； of which man was
well rid at any price。 Whereon he wrote a book called； ＇Greek text：
apokarteroon＇； in which a man who had determined to starve himself；
preached the miseries of human life； and the blessings of death； with such
overpowering force； that the book actually drove many persons to commit
suicide； and escape from a world which was not fit to dwell in。 A fearful
proof of how rotten the state of society was becoming； how desperate the
minds of men； during those frightful centuries which immediately
preceded the Christian era； and how fast was approaching that dark chaos
of unbelief and unrighteousness； which Paul of Tarsus so analyses and
describes in the first chapter of his Epistle to the Romanswhen the old
light was lost； the old faiths extinct； the old reverence for the laws of
family and national life； destroyed； yea even the natural instincts
themselves perverted； that chaos whose darkness Juvenal； and Petronius；
and Tacitus have proved； in their fearful pages； not to have been
exaggerated by the more compassionate though more righteous Jew。
And now observe； that this selfishnessthis wholesome state of
equilibriumthis philosophic calm； which is really only a lazy pride； was；
as far as we can tell； the main object of all the schools from the time of
Alexander to the Christian era。 We know very little of those Sceptics；
Cynics； Epicureans； Academics； Peripatetics； Stoics； of whom there has
been so much talk； except at second…hand； through the Romans； from
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whom Stoicism in after ages received a new and not ignoble life。 But this
we do know of the later sets； that they gradually gave up the search for
truth； and propounded to themselves as the great type for a philosopher；
How shall a man save his own soul from this evil world？ They may have
been right； it may have been the best thing to think about in those
exhausted and decaying times： but it was a question of ethics； not of
philosophy； in the sense which the old Greek sages put on that latter word。
Their object was； not to get at the laws of all things； but to fortify
themselves against all things； each according to his scheme； and so to be
self…sufficient and alone。 Even in the Stoics； who boldly and righteously
asserted an immutable morality； this was the leading conception。 As has
been well said of them：
〃If we reflect how deeply the feeling of an intercourse between men
and a divine race superior to themselves had worked itself into the Greek
characterwhat a number of fables； some beautiful； some impure； it had
impregnated and procured credence forhow it sustained every form of
polity and every system of laws； we may imagine what the effects must
have been of its disappearance。 If it is possible for any man； it was not；
certainly； possible for a Greek； to feel himself connected by any real bonds
with his fellow…creatures around him； while he felt himself utterly
separated