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and the Latins； were not subject to the civil laws of the Romans； they employed a Latin； or an ally； to lend his name； and personate the creditor。 The law； therefore； had only subjected the creditors to a matter of form； and the public were not relieved。
The people complained of this artifice； and Marius Sempronius； tribune of the people； by the authority of the senate； caused a plebiscitum to be enacted to this purport； that in regard to loans the laws prohibiting usury between Roman citizens should equally take place between a citizen and an ally； or a citizen and a Latin。＇54＇
At that time they gave the name of allies to the people of Italy properly so called； which extended as far as the Arno and the Rubicon； and was not governed in the form of a Roman province。
It is an observation of Tacitus＇55＇ that new frauds were constantly committed； whenever any laws were passed for the preventing of usury。 Finding themselves debarred from lending or borrowing in the name of an ally； they soon contrived to borrow of some inhabitant of the provinces。
To remedy this abuse they were obliged to enact a new law； and Gabinius＇56＇ upon the passing of that famous law； which was intended to prevent the corruption of suffrages； must naturally have reflected that the best way to attain his end was to discourage the lending upon interest： these were two objects naturally connected； for usury always increased at the time of elections；＇57＇ because they stood in need of money to bribe the voters。 It is plain that the Gabinian law had extended the Senatus Consultum of Marcus Sempronius to the provinces； since the people of Salamis could not borrow money at Rome because of that very law。 Brutus； under fictitious names； lent them some money＇58＇ at four per cent a month；＇59＇ and obtained for that purpose two Senatus Consulta； in the former of which it was expressly mentioned that this loan should not be considered as an evasion of the law；＇60＇ and that the governor of Sicily should determine according to the stipulations mentioned in the bond of the Salaminians。
As lending upon interest was forbidden by the Gabinian law between provincials and Roman citizens； and the latter at that time had all the money of the globe in their hands； there was a necessity for tempting them with the bait of extravagant interest； to the end that the avaricious might thus lose sight of the danger of losing their money。 And as they were men of great power in Rome； who awed the magistrates and overruled the laws； they were emboldened to lend； and to extort great usury。 Hence the provinces were successively ravaged by every one who had any credit in Rome： and as each governor； at entering upon his province； published his edict＇61＇ wherein he fixed the rate of interest in what manner he pleased； the legislature played into the hands of avarice； and the latter served the mean purposes of the legislator。
But the public business must be carried on； and wherever a total inaction obtains； the state is undone。 On some occasions the towns； the corporate bodies and societies； as well as private people； were under the necessity of borrowing a necessity but too urgent； were it only to repair the ravages of armies； the rapacity of magistrates； the extortions of collectors； and the corrupt practices daily introduced； for never was there at one period so much poverty and opulence。 The senate； being possessed of the executive power； granted； through necessity； and oftentimes through favour； a permission of borrowing from Roman citizens； so as to enact decrees for that particular purpose。 But even these decrees were discredited by the law； for they might give occasion to the people's insisting upon new rates of interest； which would augment the danger of losing the capital； while they made a further extension of usury。＇62＇ I shall ever repeat it； that mankind are governed not by extremes； but by principles of moderation。
He pays least； says Ulpian； who pays latest。＇63＇ This decides the question whether interest be lawful； that is； whether the creditor can sell time； and the debtor buy it。
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1。 The salt made use of for this purpose in Abyssinia has this defect； that it is continually wasting away。
2。 Herodotus； Bk。 i； tells us that the Lydians found out the art of coining money； the Greeks learned it from them： the Athenian coin had the impression of their ancient ox。 I have seen one of those pieces in the Earl of Pembroke's cabinet。
3。 It is an ancient custom in Algiers for the father of a family to have a treasure concealed in the earth。 Laugier de Tassis； History of the Kingdom of Algiers。
4。 C？sar； De Bello Civ。； iii。
5。 Tacitus； Annals； vi。 17。
6。 The Laws of the Saxons； 18。
7。 See chapter 12 of this book。
8。 Supposing a mark of eight ounces of silver to be worth forty…nine livres； and copper twenty sols per pound。
9。 History of the Civil Wars of the Spaniards in the West Indies。
10。 In France； Law's project was called by this name。
11。 Socrates； History of the Church； ii。 17。
12。 There is much specie in a place when there is more specie than paper； there is little； when there is more paper than specie。
13。 With the expenses of carriage and insurance deducted。
14。 In 1744。
15。 See book xx。 23。
16。 Pliny； Natural History； xxxiii； art。 13。
17。 Ibid。
18。 They received ten ounces of copper for twenty。
19。 They received sixteen ounces of copper for twenty。
20。 Pliny； xxxiii； art。 5。
21。 Freinshemius； dec。 2； v。
22。 Ibid。 They struck also； says the same author； half denarii； called quinarii； and quarters； called sesterces。
23。 An eighth； according to Bud？us； according to other authors； a seventh。
24。 Pliny； Natural History； xxxiii； art。 13。
25。 Ibid。
26。 See Father Joubert； Science of Medals； p。 59； Paris； 1739。
27。 Extract of Virtues and Vices。
28。 See Savote； part II； 12； and Le Journal des Savants of the 28th of July； 1681； on a discovery of fifty thousand medals。
29。 See Savote； ibid。
30。 Ibid。
31。 Chapter 21。
32。 England。
33。 We do not speak here of gold and silver considered as a merchandise。
34。 Tacitus； Annals； vi。 16。
35。 Usury and interest among the Romans signified the same thing。
36。 See Dionysius Halicarnassus； who has described it so well。
37。 Usur？ semisses； trientes； quadrantes。 See the several titles of the digests and codes on usury； and especially Leg。 17； with the note； ff。 de usuris。
38。 See Appius's speech on this subject； in Dionysius Halicarnassus； v。
39。 Annals； vi。 16。
40。 In the year of Rome 388。 Livy； vi。 25。
41。 Unciaria usura。 Ibid。； vii。 16。
42。 Annals； vi。 16。
43。 Under the consulate of L。 Manlius Torquatus and C。 Plautius； according to Livy； vii。 27。 This is the law mentioned by Tacitus； Annals； vi。
44。 Semiunciaria usura。
45。 As Tacitus says。 Annals； vi。
46。 This law was passed at the instance of M。 Genucius； tribune of the people。 Livy； vii； towards the end。
47。 Verteri jam more foenus receptum erat。 Appian。 On the Civil War； i。
48。 Permisit eos legibus agere。 Ibid。； and theEpitome of Livy； lxiv。
49。 In the year of Rome 663。
50。 Book xi。 19。
51。 Letters to Atticus； v。 21。
52。 Livy； xxxv。 7。
53。 Ibid。
54。 In the year 561 of Rome。 See Livy； xxv。 7。
55。 Annals； vi。 16。
56。 In the year 615 of Rome。
57。 See Letters to Atticus； iv。 15； 16。
58。 Ibid。； vi。 i。
59。 Pompey having lent 600 talents to King Ariobarzanes； made that prince pay him thirty Attic talents every thirty days。 Ibid。； v。 21； vi。 1。
60。 Ut neque Salaminiis； neque cui eis dedisset； fraudi esset。 Ibid。
61。 Cicero's edict fixed it to one per cent a month； with interest upon interest at the expiration of the year。 With regard to the farmers of the republic； he engaged them to grant a respite to their debtors； if the latter did not pay at the time fixed； he awarded the interestmentioned in the bond。 Ibid。； vi。 1。
62。 See what Lucretius says； in the 21st letter to Atticus； v。 There was even a general Senatus Consultum； to fix the rate of interest at one per cent per month。 See the same letter。
63。 Leg。 12； ff。 de verb。 signif。
Book XXIII。 Of Laws in the Relation They Bear to the Number of Inhabitants
1。 Of Men and Animals with respect to the Multiplication of their Species。
Delight of human kind；＇1＇ and gods above； Parent of Rome； propitious Queen of Love；
For when the rising spring adorns the mead； And a new scene of nature stands display'd； When teeming buds； and cheerful greens appear； And western gales unlock the lazy year； The joyous birds thy welcome first express； Whose native songs thy genial fire confess： Then savage beasts bound o'er their slighted food； Struck with thy darts； and tempt the raging flood： All nature is thy gift； earth； air； and sea； Of all that breathes the various progeny； Stung with delight； is goaded on by thee。 O'er barren mountains； o'er the flow'ry plain； The leafy forest； and the liquid main； Extends thy uncontroll'd and boundless reign。 Thro' all the living regions thou dost move； And scatter'st where thou go'st the kindly seeds of love。
The females of brutes have an almost constant fecundity。 But in the human species； the manner of thi