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tate to choose but that of marriage； and this they cannot refuse。 In France； on the contrary； young women have always the resource of celibacy； and therefore the law which ordains that they shall wait for the consent of their fathers may be more agreeable。 In this light the custom of Italy and Spain must be less rational； convents are there established； and yet they may marry without the consent of their fathers。
9。 Of young Women。 Young women who are conducted by marriage alone to liberty and pleasure； who have a mind which dares not think； a heart which dares not feel； eyes which dare not see； ears which dare not hear； who appear only to show themselves silly； condemned without intermission to trifles and precepts； have sufficient inducements to lead them on to marriage： it is the young men that want to be encouraged。
10。 What it is that determines Marriage。 Wherever a place is found in which two persons can live commodiously； there they enter into marriage。 Nature has a sufficient propensity to it； when unrestrained by the difficulty of subsistence。
A rising people increase and multiply extremely。 This is； because with them it would be a great inconvenience to live in celibacy； and none to have many children。 The contrary of which is the case when a nation is formed。
11。 Of the Severity of Government。 Men who have absolutely nothing； such as beggars； have many children。 This proceeds from their being in the case of a rising people： it costs the father nothing to give his heart to his offspring； who even in their infancy are the instruments of this art。 These people multiply in a rich or superstitious country； because they do not support the burden of society； but are themselves the burden。 But men who are poor； only because they live under a severe government； who regard their fields less as the source of their subsistence than as a cause of vexation； these men； I say； have few children： they have not even subsistence for themselves。 How then can they think of dividing it？ They are unable to take care of their own persons when they are sick。 How then can they attend to the wants of creatures whose infancy is a continual sickness？
It is pretended by some who are apt to talk of things which they have never examined that the greater the poverty of the subjects； the more numerous their families： that the more they are loaded with taxes； the more industriously they endeavour to put themselves in a station in which they will be able to pay them： two sophisms； which have always destroyed and will for ever be the destruction of monarchies。
The severity of government may be carried to such an extreme as to make the natural sentiments destructive of the natural sentiments themselves。 Would the women of America have refused to bear children had their masters been less cruel？＇11＇
12。 Of the Number of Males and Females in different Countries。 I have already observed that there are born in Europe rather more boys than girls。＇12＇ It has been remarked that in Japan there are born rather more girls than boys：＇13＇ all things compared； there must be more fruitful women in Japan than in Europe； and consequently it must be more populous。
We are informed that at Bantam there are ten girls to one boy。＇14＇ A disproportion like this must cause the number of families there to be to the number of those of other climates as 1 to 5 1/2 which is a prodigious difference。 Their families may be much larger indeed； but there must be few men in circumstances sufficient to provide for so large a family。
13。 Of Seaport Towns。 In seaport towns； where men expose themselves to a thousand dangers； and go abroad to live or die in distant climates； there are fewer men than women： and yet we see more children there than in other places。 This proceeds from the greater ease with which they procure the means of subsistence。 Perhaps even the oily parts of fish are more proper to furnish that matter which contributes to generation。 This may be one of the causes of the infinite number of people in Japan＇15＇ and China；＇16＇ where they live almost wholly on fish。＇17＇ If this be the case； certain monastic rules； which oblige the monks to live on fish； must be contrary to the spirit of the legislator himself。
14。 Of the Productions of the Earth which require a greater or less Number of Men。 Pasture…lands are but little peopled； because they find employment only for a few。 Corn…lands employ a great many men； and vineyards infinitely more。
It has been a frequent complaint in England＇18＇ that the increase of pasture…land diminished the inhabitants； and it has been observed in France that the prodigious number of vineyards is one of the great causes of the multitude of people。
Those countries where coal…pits furnish a proper substance for fuel have this advantage over others； that not having the same occasion for forests； the lands may be cultivated。
In countries productive of rice； they are at vast pains in watering the land： a great number of men must therefore be employed。 Besides； there is less land required to furnish subsistence for a family than in those which produce other kinds of grain。 In fine； the land which is elsewhere employed in raising cattle serves immediately for the subsistence of man； and the labour which in other places is performed by cattle is there performed by men； so that the culture of the soil becomes to man an immense manufacture。
15。 Of the Number of Inhabitants with relation to the Arts。 When there is an agrarian law； and the lands are equally divided； the country may be extremely well peopled； though there are but few arts； because every citizen receives from the cultivation of his land whatever is necessary for his subsistence； and all the citizens together consume all the fruits of the earth。 Thus it was in some republics。
In our present situation； in which lands are unequally distributed； they produce much more than those who cultivate them are able to consume； if the arts； therefore； should be neglected； and nothing minded but agriculture； the country could not be peopled。 Those who cultivate； or employ others to cultivate； having corn to spare； nothing would engage them to work the following year； the fruits of the earth would not be consumed by the indolent； for these would have nothing with which they could purchase them。 It is necessary； then； that the arts should be established； in order that the produce of the land may be consumed by the labourer and the artificer。 In a word； it is now proper that many should cultivate much more than is necessary for their own use。 For this purpose they must have a desire of enjoying superfluities； and these they can receive only from the artificer。
The machines designed to abridge art are not always useful。 If a piece of workmanship is of a moderate price； such as is equally agreeable to the maker and the buyer； those machines which would render the manufacture more simple； or； in other words； diminish the number of workmen； would be pernicious。 And if water…mills were not everywhere established； I should not have believed them so useful as is pretended； because they have deprived an infinite multitude of their employment； a vast number of persons of the use of water； and great part of the land of its fertility。
16。 The Concern of the Legislator in the Propagation of the Species。 Regulations on the number of citizens depend greatly on circumstances。 There are countries in which nature does all； the legislator then has nothing to do。 What need is there of inducing men by laws to propagation when a fruitful climate yields a sufficient number of inhabitants？ Sometimes the climate is more favourable than the soil； the people multiply； and are destroyed by famine： this is the case of China。 Hence a father sells his daughters and exposes his children。 In Tonquin；＇19＇ the same causes produce the same effects； so we need not； like the Arabian travellers mentioned by Renaudot； search for the origin of this in their sentiments on the metempsychosis。＇20＇
For the same reason； the religion of the Isle of Formosa does not suffer the women to bring their children into the world till they are thirty…five years of age：＇21＇ the priestess； before this age； by bruising the belly procures abortion。
17。 Of Greece and the Number of its Inhabitants。 That effect which in certain countries of the East springs from physical causes was produced in Greece by the nature of the government。 The Greeks were a great nation； composed of cities； each of which had a distinct government and separate laws。 They had no more the spirit of conquest and ambition than those of Switzerland； Holland； and Germany have at this day。 In every republic the legislator had in view the happiness of the citizens at home； and their power abroad； lest it should prove inferior to that of the neighbouring cities。＇22＇ Thus； with the enjoyment of a small territory and great happiness； it was easy for the number of the citizens to increase to such a degree as to become burdensome。 This obliged them incessantly to send out colonies；＇23＇ and； as the Swiss do now； to let their men out to war。 Nothing was neglected that could hinder the too great multiplication of children。
They had among them republics； whose constitution