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20。 Leg。； 5； ff。 ad。 leg。 Juliam peculatus。
21。 Cap。 quisquis 17； qu？stione 4。 Cujas； Observat。； xiii。 19； tom。 iii。
22。 Beaumanoir； Ancient Customs of Beauvoisis； 18； § 6。
23。 Leg。 1。 Cod。 ad。 leg。 Jul。 de adulteriis。
24。 At present they do not take cognizance of these things in France。
25。 Leg。 ii； § ult。； ff。 ad。 leg。 Jul。 de adultenis。
26。 Nov。 134。 Col。 9； cap。 x； tit。 170。
27。 Leg。 7； Cod。 de repudiis； et juricio de morib。 sublato。
28。 Auth。 Hodie quantiscumque。 Cod。 de repudiis。
29。 Auth。 Quod hodie。 Cod。 de repudiis。
30。 See what has been said on this subject； in book xxiii。 21； in the relation they bear to the number of inhabitants。
31。 See Leg。 16； ff。 de ritu nuptiarum； and Leg。 3； § 1； also Dig。 de donationibus inter virum et uxorem。
32。 This law is very ancient among them。 Attila； says Priscus； in his embassy stopped in a certain place to marry Esca his daughter。 〃A thing permitted；〃 he adds； 〃by the laws of the Scythians；〃 p。 22。
33。 History of the Tartars； part III； p。 256。
34。 It was thus among the ancient Romans。
35。 Among the Romans they had the same name； the cousins…german were called brothers。
36。 It was thus at Rome in the first ages； till the people made a law to permit them； they were willing to favour a man extremely popular； who had married his cousin…german。 Plutarch's treatise entitled Questions Concerning the Affairs of the Romans。
37。 Collection of Voyages to the Indies； v； part 1。 An account of the state of the isle of Formosa。
38。 Koran； chapter 〃On Women。〃
39。 See Francis Pirard。
40。 They were considered as more honourable。 See Philo； De Specialibus legib。 qu？ pertinet ad pr？cepta decalogi； p。 778； Paris； 1640。
41。 See Leg。 8； Cod。 de incestis et inutilibus nuptiis。
42。 Edifying Letters； coll。 xiv； p。 403。
43。 〃The lord appointed collectors to receive the toll from the peasant； the gentlemen were obliged to contribute by the count； and the clergy to the bishop。〃 Beaumanoir； 25； §§ 13； 17。
44。 De Leg。； i。
45。 Politics； iii。 13。
46。 Hyperbolus。 See Plutarch； Aristides。
47。 It was found opposite to the spirit of the legislator。 See below； xxix。 7。
48。 Plutarch in his comparison between Lycurgus and Numa。
49。 Plutarch； Cato the Younger。
50。 Leg。 11 § ult。； ff。 ad。 leg。 Jul。 de adulteriis。
51。 Law of the Visigoths； iii； tit。 4； § 6。
52。 See Garcilasso de la Vega； p。 108。
53。 See v。 14； viii。 16…20； ix。 4…7； and x。 9； 10。
54。 Venice。
55。 Chapter 14； part XII。
Book XXVII。
1。 Of the Origin and Revolutions of the Roman Laws on Successions。 This affair derives its establishment from the most distant antiquity； and to penetrate to its foundation； permit me to search among the first laws of the Romans for what； I believe； nobody yet has been so happy as to discover。
We know that Romulus＇1＇ divided the land of his little kingdom among his subjects； it seems to me that hence the laws of Rome on successions were derived。
The law of the division of lands made it necessary that the property of one family should not pass into another： hence it followed that there were but two orders of heirs established by law； the children and all the descendants that lived under the power of the father； whom they called sui h？redes； or his natural heirs； and； in their default； the nearest relatives on the male side； whom they called agnati。＇2＇
It followed likewise； that the relatives on the female side； whom they called cognati； ought not to succeed； they would have conveyed the estate into another family； which was not allowed。
Thence also it followed that the children ought not to succeed to the mother； nor the mother to her children； for this might carry the estate of one family into another。 Thus we see them excluded by the law of the Twelve Tables：＇3＇ it called none to the succession but the agnati； and there was no agnation between the son and the mother。
But it was indifferent whether the suus h？res； or； in default of such； the nearest by agnation； was male or female； because； as the relatives on the mother's side could not succeed； though a woman who was an heiress should happen to marry； yet the estate always returned into the family whence it came。 On this account； the law of the Twelve Tables does not distinguish； whether the person who succeeded was male or female。＇4＇
This was the cause that； though the grandchildren by the son succeeded to the grandfather； the grandchildren by the daughter did not succeed； for； to prevent the estate from passing into another family； the agnati were preferred to them。 Hence the daughter； and not her children； succeeded to the father。＇5＇
Thus among the primitive Romans； the women succeeded； when this was agreeable to the law of the division of lands； and they did not succeed； when this might suffer by it。
Such were the laws of succession among the primitive Romans； and as these had a natural dependence on the constitution； and were derived from the division of lands； it is easy to perceive that they had not a foreign origin； and were not of the number of those brought into the republic by the deputies sent into the cities of Greece。
Dionysius Halicarnassus tells us＇6＇ that Servius Tullius； finding the laws of Romulus and Numa on the division of lands abolished； restored them； and made new ones to give the old a greater weight。 We cannot therefore doubt but that the laws we have been speaking of； made in consequence of this division； were the work of these three Roman legislators。
The order of succession having been established in consequence of a political law； no citizen was allowed to break in upon it by his private will； that is； in the first ages of Rome he had not the power of making a testament。 Yet it would have been hard to deprive him； in his last moments； of the friendly commerce of kind and beneficent actions。
They therefore found a method of reconciling； in this respect； the laws with the desires of the individual。 He was permitted to dispose of his substance in an assembly of the people； and thus every testament was； in some sort； an act of the legislative power。
The law of the Twelve Tables permitted the person who made his will to choose which citizen he pleased for his heir。 The reason that induced the Roman laws so strictly to restrain the number of those who might succeed ab intestato was the law of the division of lands； and the reason why they extended so widely the power of the testator was that； as the father might sell his children；＇7＇ he might with greater reason deprive them of his substance。 These were therefore different effects； since they flowed from different principles； and such is； in this respect； the spirit of the Roman laws。
The ancient laws of Athens did not suffer a citizen to make a will。 Solon permitted it； with an exception to those who had children；＇8＇ and the legislators of Rome； filled with the idea of paternal power； allowed the making a will even to the prejudice of their children。 It must be confessed that the ancient laws of Athens were more consistent than those of Rome。 The indefinite permission of making a will which had been granted to the Romans； ruined little by little the political regulation on the division of lands； it was the principal thing that introduced the fatal difference between riches and poverty： many shares were united in the same person； some citizens had too much； and a multitude of others had nothing。 Thus the people being continually deprived of their shares were incessantly calling out for a new distribution of lands。 They demanded it in an age when the frugality； the parsimony and the poverty of the Romans were their distinguishing characteristics； as well as at a time when their luxury had become still more astonishing。
Testaments being properly a law made in the assembly of the people； those who were in the army were thereby deprived of a testamentary power。 The people therefore gave the soldiers the privilege of making before their companions＇9＇ the dispositions which should have been made before them。＇10＇
The great assembly of the people met but twice a year； besides； both the people and the affairs brought before them were increased； they therefore judged it convenient to permit all the citizens to make their will before some Roman citizens of ripe age； who were to represent the body of the people；＇11＇ they took five citizens；＇12＇ in whose presence the inheritor purchased his family； that is； his inheritance； of the testator；＇13＇ another citizen brought a pair of scales to weigh the value； for the Romans； as yet； had no money。＇14＇
To all appearance these five citizens were to represent the five classes of the people； and they set no value on the sixth； as being composed of men who had no property。
We ought not to say； with Justinian； that these scales were merely imaginary； they became； indeed； imaginary in time； but were not so originally。 Most of the laws； which afterwards regulated wills； were built on the reality of these scales： we find sufficient proof of this in the fragments of Ulpian。＇15＇ The deaf； the dumb； the prodigal； could not make a will： the deaf； because he could not hear the words of the buyer of the inheritance； the dumb； be