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2。 C？sar； Cromwell； and many others。
3。 Non liquet。
4。 Quas actiones ne populus prout vellet institueret； certas solemnesque esse voluerunt Dig。 de Orig。 Jur。； ii； § 6。
5。 In France a person； though sued for more than he owes； loses his costs if he has not offered to pay the exact debt。
6。 Discourse on the first decade of Livy； i。 7。
7。 This is well explained in Cicero's oration Pro C？cina； towards the end； 100。
8。 This was the law at Athens； as appears by Demosthenes。 Socrates refused to make use of it。
9。 Demosthenes； Pro Corona； p。 494； Frankfort； 1604。
10。 See Philostratus； Lives of the Sophists； i。 Life of ？schines。
11。 Plato does not think it right that kings； who； as he says； are priests； should preside at trials where people are condemned to death； to exile； or to imprisonment。
12。 See the account of the trial of the Duke de la Valette。 It is printed in the Memoirs of Montresor； ii； p。 62。
13。 It was afterwards revoked。 See the same account； ii。 p。 236。 It was ordinarily a right of the peerage that a peer criminally accused should be judged by the king； as Francis II in the trial of the Prince of Condé； and Charles VII in the case of the Duc d'Alen？on。 To…day； the presence of the king at the trial of a peer； in order to condemn him would seem an act of tyranny。 Voltaire。
14。 Annals； xi。 5。
15。 Ibid。； xiii。 4。
16。 Histories； v。
17。 The same disorder happened under Theodosius the younger。
18。 Secret History。
19。 See Leg。 2； § 24； Dig。 ff。 de orig。 jur。
20。 Quod pater puellce abesset； locum injuria esse ratus。 Livy； dec。 I； iii。 44。
21。 And in a great many other cities。
22。 See in Tacitus the rewards given to those informers。 Annals； i。 30。
23。 Book ix。
24。 I shall show hereafter that China is； in this respect； in the same case as a republic or a monarchy。
25。 Suppose； for instance； to prevent the execution of a decree； the common people paid a fine of forty sous； and the nobility of sixty livres。 Somme Rurale； ii； p。 198； ed。 Goth。 1512； and Beaumanoir； 61； p。 309。
26。 See the Council of Peter Defontaines； 13； especially art。 22。
27。 It was made by Valerius Publicola soon after the expulsion of the kings； and was twice renewed； both times by magistrates of the same family。 As Livy observes； x； 9； the question was not to give it a greater force； but to render its injunctions more perfect。 〃Diligentius sanctum；〃 says Livy； ibid。
28。 Lex Porcia pro tergo civium lata。 It was made in the 454th year of the foundation of Rome。
29。 Nihil ultra quam improbe factum adjecet Livy； loc。 cit。
30。 They slit his nose or cut off his ears。
31。 Xenophon； Hist。； iii。 8； §§ 20…22。
32。 Of Those Who Are Intrusted with the Direction of the State Affairs； 14。
33。 See Kempfer。
34。 Collection of Voyages that Contributed to the Establishment of the East India Company； iii； part I； p。 428。
35。 Let this be observed as a maxim in practice； with regard to cases where the minds of people have been depraved by too great a severity of punishments。
36。 Collection of Voyages that Contributed to the Establishment of the East India Company； v； p。 2。
37。 Ibid。
38。 The guilty were condemned to a fine； they could not be admitted into the rank of senators； nor nominated to any public office。 Dio； xxxvi。 21。
39。 Ibid。
40。 Book i。 28。
41。 We find there the punishment of fire； and generally capital punishments； theft punished with death； &c。
42。 Sulla； animated with the same spirit as the decemvirs； followed their example in augmenting the penal laws against satirical writers。
43。 Book i； 28。
44。 Poenas facinorum auxit； cum locupletes eo facilius scelere se obligarent； quod integris patrimoniis exularent。 Suetonius in Life of Julius C？sar； 162。
45。 See the Leg。 3； § legis； ad leg。 Cornel； de sicariis； and a vast number of others in the Digest and in the Codex。
46。 Sublimiores。
47。 Medios。
48。 Infirnos。 Leg。 3； § legis； ad leg。 Cornel； de sicariis。
49。 Jul。 Cap。； Maximini duo； 8。
50。 Chapter 17。
51。 Hist。 of Nicephorus； patriarch of Constantinople。
52。 In Nicephorus' History。
53。 Father Du Halde； i； p。 6。
54。 Present State of Russia； Perry。
55。 The English。
56。 The citizens of Athens could not be put to the rack （Lysias； Orat。 contra Agorat。） unless it was for high treason。 The torture was used within thirty days after condemnation。 （Curius Fortunatus。 Rhetor； scol。； ii。） There was no preparatory torture。 In regard to the Romans； the Leg。 3； 4； ad leg。 Jul。 majest。； show that birth； dignity； and the military profession exempted people from the rack； except in cases of high treason。 See the prudent restrictions of this practice made by the laws of the Visigoths。
57。 See Kempfer。
58。 It is established in the Koran。 See the chapter； Of the Cow。
59。 Si membrum rupit； ni cum eo pacit； talio esto。 Aulus Gellius； xx。 i。
60。 Ibid。
61。 See also the Law of the Visigoths； vi； tit。 4； §§ 3； 5。
62。 See Garcilasso； History of the Civil Wars of the Spaniards in the West Indies。
63。 〃Instead of punishing them；〃 says Plato； 〃they ought to be commended for not having followed their fathers' example。〃 Laws； ix。
64。 Fragment of Suidas； in Constantine Porphyrogenitus。
Book VII。 Consequences of the Different Principles of the Three Governments with Respect to Sumptuary Laws； Luxury； and the Condition of Women
1。 Of Luxury。 Luxury is ever in proportion to the inequality of fortunes。 If the riches of a state are equally divided there will be no luxury； for it is founded merely on the conveniences acquired by the labour of others。
In order to have this equal distribution of riches； the law ought to give to each man only what is necessary for nature。 If they exceed these bounds； some will spend； and others will acquire； by which means an inequality will be established。
Supposing what is necessary for the support of nature to be equal to a given sum； the luxury of those who have only what is barely necessary will be equal to a cipher： if a person happens to have double that sum； his luxury will be equal to one； he that has double the latter's substance will have a luxury equal to three； if this be still doubled； there will be a luxury equal to seven； so that the property of the subsequent individual being always supposed double to that of the preceding； the luxury will increase double； and a unit be always added； in this progression； 0； 1； 3； 7； 15； 31； 63； 127
In Plato's republic；＇1＇ luxury might have been exactly calculated。 There were four sorts of censuses or rates of estates。 The first was exactly the term beyond poverty； the second was double； the third triple； the fourth quadruple to the first。 In the first census； luxury was equal to a cipher； in the second to one； in the third to two； in the fourth to three： and thus it followed in an arithmetical proportion。
Considering the luxury of different nations with respect to one another； it is in each state a compound proportion to the inequality of fortunes among the subjects； and to the inequality of wealth in different states。 In Poland； for example； there is an extreme inequality of fortunes； but the poverty of the whole binders them from having so much luxury as in a more opulent government。
Luxury is also in proportion to the populousness of the towns； and especially of the capital； so that it is in a compound proportion to the riches of the state； to the inequality of private fortunes； and to the number of people settled in particular places。
In proportion to the populousness of towns； the inhabitants are filled with notions of vanity； and actuated by an ambition of distinguishing themselves by trifles。＇2＇ If they are very numerous； and most of them strangers to one another； their vanity redoubles； because there are greater hopes of success。 As luxury inspires these hopes； each man assumes the marks of a superior condition。 But by endeavouring thus at distinction； every one becomes equal； and distinction ceases； as all are desirous of respect； nobody is regarded。
Hence arises a general inconvenience。 Those who excel in a profession set what value they please on their labour； this example is followed by people of inferior abilities； and then there is an end of all proportion between our wants and the means of satisfying them。 When I am forced to go to law； I must be able to fee counsel； when I am sick； I must have it in my power to fee a physician。
It is the opinion of several that the assemblage of so great a multitude of people in capital cities is an obstruction to commerce； because the inhabitants are no longer at a proper distance from each other。 But I cannot think so； for men have more desires； more wants； more fancies； when they live together。
2。 Of sumptuary Laws in a Democracy。 We have observed that in a republic； where riches are equally divided； there can be no such thing as luxury； and as we have shown in the 5th Book＇3＇ that this equal distribution constitutes the excellence of a republican government； hence it follows； that the less luxury there is in a republic； the more it is perfect。 There was none among the old Romans； none among the Laced？monians； and in republics where this equality is