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ished by the farmer； it may afterwards be safely entrusted to a commission。 In England the management of the Excise and of the Post…office was borrowed from that of the farmers of the revenue。
In republics the revenues of the state are generally managed by commission。 The contrary practice was a great defect in the Roman government。＇17＇ In despotic governments the people are infinitely happier where this management is established witness Persia and China。＇18＇ The unhappiest of all are those where the prince farms out his sea…ports and trading cities。 The history of monarchies abounds with mischiefs done by the farmers of the revenue。
Incensed at the oppressive extortions of the publicans； Nero formed a magnanimous but impracticable scheme of abolishing all kinds of imposts。 He did not think of managing the revenues by commissioners； but he made four edicts：＇19＇ that the laws enacted against publicans； which had hitherto been kept secret； should be promulgated； that they should exact no claims for above a year backward； that there should be a pr？tor established to determine their pretensions without any formality； and that the merchants should pay no duty for their vessels。 These were the halcyon days of that emperor。
20。 Of the Farmers of the Revenues。 When the lucrative profession of a farmer of the revenue becomes likewise a post of honour； the state is ruined。 It may do well enough in despotic governments； where this employment is often
times exercised by the governors themselves。 But it is by no means proper in a republic； since a custom of the like nature destroyed that of Rome。 Nor is it better in monarchies； nothing being more opposite to the spirit of this government。 All the other orders of the state are dissatisfied； honour loses its whole value； the gradual and natural means of distinction are no longer respected； and the very principle of the government is subverted。
It is true indeed that scandalous fortunes were raised in former times； but this was one of the calamities of the Fifty Years' War。 These riches were then considered as ridiculous； now we admire them。
Every profession has its particular lot。 That of the tax…gatherers is wealth； and wealth is its own reward。 Glory and honour fall to the share of that nobility who are sensible of no other happiness。 Respect and esteem are for those ministers and magistrates whose whole life is a continued series of labour； and who watch day and night over the welfare of the empire。
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1。 Plutarch； Notable Sayings of the Laced？monians。
2。 This is what induced Charlemagne to make his excellent institution upon this head。 See the fifth book of the Capitularies； art。 303。
3。 This is the practice in Germany。
4。 Pollux； viii。 10； art。 130。
5。 Or 60 min？。
6。 Tacitus； Annals； xiii。 31。
7。 Father Du Halde； ii； p。 37。
8。 History of the Tartars； part III； p。 290。
9。 Being willing to trade with foreigners without having any communication with them； they have pitched upon two nations for that purpose the Dutch for the commerce of Europe； and the Chinese for that of Asia； they confine the factors and sailors in a kind of prison； and lay such a restraint upon them as tires their patience。
10。 In Russia the taxes are but small； they have been increased since the despotic power of the prince is exercised with more moderation。 See the History of the Tartars； part II。
11。 The Pays d'etats； where the states of the province assemble to deliberate on public affairs。
12。 This is the practice of the emperors of China。
13。 See in history the greatness； the oddity； and even the folly of those taxes。 Anastasius invented a tax for breathing； ut quisque pro haustu ？ris penderet。
14。 True it is that this state of effort is the chief support of the balance； because it checks the great powers。
15。 All that is wanting for this is to improve the new invention of the militia established in most parts of Europe； and carry it to the same excess as they do the regular troops。
16。 See A Treatise on the Roman Finances； 2； Paris； 1740。
17。 C？sar was obliged to remove the publicans from the province of Asia； and to establish there another kind of regulation； as we learn from Dio； xlii。 6； and Tacitus； Annals； i。 76； informs us that Macedonia and Achaia； provinces left by Augustus to the people of Rome； and consequently governed pursuant to the ancient plan； obtained to be of the number of those which the emperor governed by his officers。
18。 See Sir John Chardin's Travels through Persia； vi。
19。 Tacitus； Annals； xiii。 51。
Book XIV。 Of Laws in Relation to the Nature of the Climate
1。 General Idea。 If it be true that the temper of the mind and the passions of the heart are extremely different in different climates； the laws ought to be in relation both to the variety of those passions and to the variety of those tempers。
2。 Of the Difference of Men in different Climates。 Cold air constringes the extremities of the external fibres of the body；＇1＇ this increases their elasticity； and favours the return of the blood from the extreme parts to the heart。 It contracts＇2＇ those very fibres； consequently it increases also their force。 On the contrary； warm air relaxes and lengthens the extremes of the fibres； of course it diminishes their force and elasticity。
People are therefore more vigorous in cold climates。 Here the action of the heart and the reaction of the extremities of the fibres are better performed； the temperature of the humours is greater； the blood moves more freely towards the heart； and reciprocally the heart has more power。 This superiority of strength must produce various effects； for instance； a greater boldness； that is； more courage； a greater sense of superiority； that is； less desire of revenge； a greater opinion of security； that is； more frankness； less suspicion； policy； and cunning。 In short； this must be productive of very different tempers。 Put a man into a close； warm place； and for the reasons above given he will feel a great faintness。 If under this circumstance you propose a bold enterprise to him； I believe you will find him very little disposed towards it； his present weakness will throw him into despondency； he will be afraid of everything； being in a state of total incapacity。 The inhabitants of warm countries are； like old men； timorous； the people in cold countries are； like young men； brave。 If we reflect on the late wars；＇3＇ which are more recent in our memory； and in which we can better distinguish some particular effects that escape us at a greater distance of time； we shall find that the northern people； transplanted into southern regions；＇4＇ did not perform such exploits as their countrymen who； fighting in their own climate； possessed their full vigour and courage。
This strength of the fibres in northern nations is the cause that the coarser juices are extracted from their aliments。 Hence two things result： one； that the parts of the chyle or lymph are more proper； by reason of their large surface； to be applied to and to nourish the fibres； the other； that they are less proper； from their coarseness； to give a certain subtilty to the nervous juice。 Those people have therefore large bodies and but little vivacity。
The nerves that terminate from all parts in the cutis form each a nervous bundle； generally speaking； the whole nerve is not moved； but a very minute part。 In warm climates； where the cutis is relaxed； the ends of the nerves are expanded and laid open to the weakest action of the smallest objects。 In cold countries the cutis is constinged and the papill？ compressed： the miliary glands are in some measure paralytic； and the sensation does not reach the brain； except when it is very strong and proceeds from the whole nerve at once。 Now； imagination； taste； sensibility； and vivacity depend on an infinite number of small sensations。
I have observed the outermost part of a sheep's tongue； where； to the naked eye； it seems covered with papill？。 On these papill？ I have discerned through a microscope small hairs； or a kind of down； between the papill？ were pyramids shaped towards the ends like pincers。 Very likely these pyramids are the principal organ of taste。
I caused the half of this tongue to be frozen； and； observing it with the naked eye； I found the papill？ considerably diminished： even some rows of them were sunk into their sheath。 The outermost part I examined with the microscope； and perceived no pyramids。 In proportion as the frost went off； the papill？ seemed to the naked eye to rise； and with the microscope the miliary glands began to appear。
This observation confirms what I have been saying； that in cold countries the nervous glands are less expanded： they sink deeper into their sheaths； or they are sheltered from the action of external objects； consequently they have not such lively sensations。
In cold countries they have very little sensibility tor pleasure； in temperate countries； they have more； in warm countries； their sensibility is exquisite。 As climates are distinguished by degrees of latitude； we might distinguish them also in some measure by those of sensibility。 I have been at the opera in England and in Italy； where I have seen the same pi