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新中国成立以后,西方研究中国外交的领域中出现了以传统…历史学
派(Traditional…history school),毛主义学派(Maoistschool)和
现实主义学派(Realist school)为主体的第一代学者。其中传统…历史
学派认为新中国的外交承袭了中国传统的外交方式,即“中央之国”的
大国沙文主义,'4'毛主义学派则认为新中国的外交在很大程度上是基于
“毛化”了的,即中国化的马克思列宁主义。中国共产党在夺取政权的
过程中一系列的对外政策,如统一战线,利用矛盾,人民战争等等,都
体现在新中国的外交风格中。'5'而二战以后崛起的现实主义学派则用国
家利益、实力学说等变量来解释中国的外交行为。'6'尽管三者所用的变
量不同,它们的共同点是从广义的角度,对中国的外交行为进行宏观的
解释。
进入六十年代,西方研究中国外交的领域出现了以两个新的学派为
特征的第二代:其中之一是所谓派系学说(Faction…alist school)。
其主要论点是中国领导层在内政方面的分歧,也导致了不同的外交行
为。这一学派得益于文革期间所暴露的大量的高层分歧,认为中国的领
导阶层已非铁板一块。中国外交因此是派系之争和妥协的结果。'7'另一
个学派是所谓“大三角学派”(Trianglist school)。由于中美苏三方
在战略方面的纵横捭阖,西方对处于大三角关系中相对弱小但又十分微
妙的中国一极的作用十分重视,大量有关中国共产党外交的研究由此而
产生。'8'
至八十年代初,第三代学者开始发挥影响。其中最突出的是机构学
派(Institutionalist school)和观念学派(perceptualschool)。前
者着重于中国对外关系决策的组织与机构,'9'后者研究中国的国际关系
和对外关系决策和研究者对他们所研究对象的认识和观念,及其对中国
外交的影响。'10'而沈大为先生的“美帝”一书则是集二者之大成,系统
地描述了分析和制定中国外交的“硬件”和“软件”。
第三代学者的共同点是把对中国外交行为的分析由宏观转向微观,
由外部转向内部,由研究决策的外部环境和政策结果转向研究决策过程
和决策参与者的细微观念。这与前两代学者的治学方法十分不同。然而
有长必有短,第三代学者对中国外交细微之处的关注,有时不可避免地
难以兼顾宏观方面的总体判断。比如,沈大为先生在《美帝》一书中所
作中国的美国通们对美国情况基本不了解的结论,西方一些中国学的长
辈也为之惊叹。'11'当然,研究课题的制定,采用何种方法,引用何种资
料,纯属个人的学术自由,本文无意品论。在此仅期待西方的中国学界
能够见树见林,不断完善发展。
注释
'1'Doak Barnett ,。。 The Making of Foreign Policy in China。Boulder ,。。 Colo。 :
WestviewPress,1985。
'2'Allen S。Whiting:“The Use of Force in Foreign Policy by the People’s Republicof
China”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 402,Ju…ly,
1972; Allen S。Whiting:The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence Ann Arbor:Uni…versity of
Michigan Press,1975。
'3'GabrielA。Almond and Stephen J。Genco :。。 “。。 Clouds , Clocks ,。。 and the
StudyofPolitics”,World Politics 29,July,1977, p。522。
'4'See Mark Mancall:“The Persistence of Tradition in Chinese Foreign Policy”,
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Sciences 349,September,1963;
C。P。Fitzgerald:The Chinese View of Their Place in the World,London:OxfordUniversity
Press,1964; Francois Geoffroy…Dechaume:China Looks at the World,London:Faber and
Faber,1967; Norton Ginsberg:“On the Chinese Perception of aWorld Order”,in Tang
Tsou,ed。,China in Crisis,vol。2,Chicago:University ofChicago Press,1968;John
K。Fairbank:ed。,The Chinese World Order,Cam…bridge:Harvard University Press,1968;
idem,“China’s Foreign Policy in Histori…cal Perspective,”Foreign Affairs 47,April,
1969;Albert Feuerwerker:“ChineseHistory and the Foreign Relations of Contemporary
China”,Annals of the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science 402,July,1972;
J。Cranmer…Byng :。。 “。。 TheChinese View of Their Place in the World :。。 An Historical
Perspective”,China Quar…terly, no。 53,January…March, 1973。
'5'See Benjamin I。Schwartz:munism and China:Ideology in Flux,Cam…bridge:
Harvard University Press,1968;idem:‘Thought of Mao Tsetung’”,
“China and the West in the
in Ping…ti Ho and Tang Tsou,eds。,China in Crisis,vol。1,book 1,
Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1968;Harold C。Hinton:China’s Turbulent Quest,
Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1972;JohnGittings:The World and China,
1922…1972,New York:Harper and Rowe,1974;idem,“The Statesman”,in Dick Wilson,
ed。,Mao Tse…Tung in the Scales of His…tory,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,
1977;Michel Oksenberg:“Mao’sPolicy mitments,1921…1976”,Problems of munism
25,November…Decem…ber,1976;Lucian Pye:“Mao Tse…Tung’s Leadership Style”,Political
ScienceQuarterly 91,Summer,1976;Maurice Meisner:Mao’s China:A History of thePeople’
s Republic,New York:Free Press,1977; Greg O’Leary:The Shapingof Chinese Foreign
Policy,New York:St。 Martin’s Press,1980。
'6'Whiting:China Crosses the Yalu:The Decision to Enter the Korean War,Stan…ford,
Calif。: Stanford University Press,1960; See also Donald Zagoria:VietnamTriangle,
New York:Peg asus,1967;idem,“The Strategic Debate in Peking”,inTsou,fn。3;I。C。Ojha:
Chinese Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition,Boston:Beacon,1969;Van Ness,fn。7;
Thoman W。Robinson:“The View from Peking:China’s Policies towards the United States,
the Soviet Union, and Japan”,PacificAffairs 45,Fall,1972; Allen S。Whiting:“New
Light on Mao:Quemoy 1958:Mao’s Miscalculations”,Chian Quarterly,no。62, June,
1975, 263…70;JonathanPollack:“Perception and Action in Chinese Foreign Policy:
“The Quemoy Decision”,Ph。D。diss。,University of Michigan,1976;Michael Yahvda:
China’s role inWorld Affairs,New York:St。Martin’s Press,1978; Melvin Gurtov and
Byong…moo Hwang:China under Threat:The Politics of Strategy and Diplomacy,Balti
more:Johns Hopkins University Press,1980。
'7'A typical example of this argument is made by Andrew Nathan:
“A FactionalismModel
for CCP Politics”,China Quarterly,no。53,January…March,1973。
'8'See,e。g。,Henry Kissinger:White House Years,Boston:Little,Brown,1979,
esp。837;Ilpyong Kim,ed。:The Strategic Triangle:China,the United Statesand the Soviet
Union,New York:Paragon House,1987;Herbert J。Ellison,ed。:The Sino…Soviet Conflict:
A Global Perspective,Seattle:University of WashingtonPress,1982;Gerald Segal:The
Great Power Triangle,London and Basingstoke:Macmillan Press,1982;Segal,fn。19;
Douglas T。Stuart and William T。Tow,eds。:China,the Soviet Union,and the West:Strategic
and Political Dimensionsin the 1980s,Boulder,Colo。:Westview Press,
1982;Strobe Talbott:“TheStrategic Dimension of the Sino…American Relationship:Enemy
of Our Enemy,orTrue Friend?”,in Richard R。Solomon,ed。:The China Factor,Englewood
Cliffs,N。J。:Prentice…Hall,1981;“The Strategic Triangle:An Elemen…tary
Lowell Dittmer:
Game…Theoretical Analysis”,World Politics 33,July,1981;Kenneth G。Lieberthal:
Sino…Soviet Conflict in the 1970s:Its Evolution and Implications forthe Strategic
Triangle Santa Monica,Calif。:Rand Corporaiton,1978;Steven I。Levine:“China and the
Superpowers”,Political Science Quarterly 90, Winter,1975…76。
'9'See David L。Shambaugh:“China’s National Security Research Bureaucracy”,
China Quarterly,no。110,June 1987;David L。Shambaugh and Wang Jisi:“Re…search on
International Studies in the People’s Republic of China”,PS 17,Fall,1984;Li Fan:
“The Question of Interests in the Chinese Policy Making Process”,China Quarterly,
no。109,March,1987;Douglas Murray:International RelationsResearch and Training in
the People’s Republic of China,Stanford,Calif。:Northeast Asia…United States Forum
on International Policy,1982。
'10' Some of the major works are Shambaugh,fn。1;idem:“China’s AmericaWatchers”,
Problems of munism 37,May…August,1988;idem:“Anti…Ameri…canism in China”,Annals,
AAPSS 497,May,1988;Gilbert Rozman:The ChineseDebate about Soviet Socialism,1978…1985,
Princeton:Princeton University Press,1987;Idem,“China’s Soviet Watchers in the
1980s:A New Era in Scholarship”,World Politics 37, July,1985;Whiting。China Eyes
Japan;Michael H。Hunt etal。:“Mutual Images in U。S。…China Relations”,Wilson Paper,
no。32,June,1988;Banning Garrett and Bonnie Glaser:“Chinese Estimates of the
U。S。…SovietBalance of Power”,Wilson Paper,no。33, July, 1988; Harish Kapur,ed。:
AsChina Sees the World:Perceptions of Chinese Scholars,London:Frances Pinter
Pub…lishers,1987;Michael Yahuda,ed。:New Directions in the Social Sciences and
Hu…manities in China,New York:St。Martin’s Press,1987;Yaacov Vertzberger:
Misperceptions in Foreign Policymaking:The Sino…Indian Conflict,1959…1962,Boulder,
Colo。:Westview Press,1984。
'11'See book review article by Lucian W。Pye:China Quarterly,no。129, March,
1992,pp。229…31。
宗教功能的本土化阐释
——杨庆堃《中国社会的宗教》读后
杨念群
中国社会中有无宗教?若有宗教其地位又当如何?儒学是否可称之
为儒教?等等疑问语式似乎历来就是学术家殚思竭虑、攻讦驳难的原始
命题。关于宗教在中国的“有”与“无”,《中国社会的宗教》一书之
名已昭示出了作者的倾向性。在著者杨庆堃先生看来,中国城市中最宽
敞最漂亮的房子往往就是庙宇,一般只有高级官员的住宅才能与之匹敌
或超过它们;稍有感性常识的人,谁也不会对遍布地方基层的庙宇和神
龛之宗教特性视而不见。当然,对这些问题的回答仅仅靠跟着感觉走是
不行