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To imagine a man perfectly free and not subject to the law of
inevitability； we must imagine him all alone； beyond space； beyond
time； and free from dependence on cause。
In the first case； if inevitability were possible without freedom we
should have reached a definition of inevitability by the laws of
inevitability itself； that is； a mere form without content。
In the second case； if freedom were possible without inevitability
we should have arrived at unconditioned freedom beyond space； time；
and cause； which by the fact of its being unconditioned and
unlimited would be nothing； or mere content without form。
We should in fact have reached those two fundamentals of which man's
whole outlook on the universe is constructed… the incomprehensible
essence of life； and the laws defining that essence。
Reason says： （1） space with all the forms of matter that give it
visibility is infinite； and cannot be imagined otherwise。 （2） Time
is infinite motion without a moment of rest and is unthinkable
otherwise。 （3） The connection between cause and effect has no
beginning and can have no end。
Consciousness says： （1） I alone am； and all that exists is but me；
consequently I include space。 （2） I measure flowing time by the
fixed moment of the present in which alone I am conscious of myself as
living； consequently I am outside time。 （3） I am beyond cause； for I
feel myself to be the cause of every manifestation of my life。
Reason gives expression to the laws of inevitability。
Consciousness gives expression to the essence of freedom。
Freedom not limited by anything is the essence of life； in man's
consciousness。 Inevitability without content is man's reason in its
three forms。
Freedom is the thing examined。 Inevitability is what examines。
Freedom is the content。 Inevitability is the form。
Only by separating the two sources of cognition； related to one
another as form to content； do we get the mutually exclusive and
separately incomprehensible conceptions of freedom and inevitability。
Only by uniting them do we get a clear conception of man's life。
Apart from these two concepts which in their union mutually define
one another as form and content； no conception of life is possible。
All that we know of the life of man is merely a certain relation
of free will to inevitability； that is； of consciousness to the laws
of reason。
All that we know of the external world of nature is only a certain
relation of the forces of nature to inevitability； or of the essence
of life to the laws of reason。
The great natural forces lie outside us and we are not conscious
of them； we call those forces gravitation； inertia； electricity；
animal force； and so on； but we are conscious of the force of life
in man and we call that freedom。
But just as the force of gravitation； incomprehensible in itself but
felt by every man； is understood by us only to the extent to which
we know the laws of inevitability to which it is subject （from the
first knowledge that all bodies have weight； up to Newton's law）； so
too the force of free will； incomprehensible in itself but of which
everyone is conscious； is intelligible to us only in as far as we know
the laws of inevitability to which it is subject （from the fact that
every man dies； up to the knowledge of the most complex economic and
historic laws）。
All knowledge is merely a bringing of this essence of life under the
laws of reason。
Man's free will differs from every other force in that man is
directly conscious of it； but in the eyes of reason it in no way
differs from any other force。 The forces of gravitation；
electricity； or chemical affinity are only distinguished from one
another in that they are differently defined by reason。 Just so the
force of man's free will is distinguished by reason from the other
forces of nature only by the definition reason gives it。 Freedom；
apart from necessity； that is； apart from the laws of reason that
define it； differs in no way from gravitation； or heat； or the force
that makes things grow； for reason； it is only a momentary undefinable
sensation of life。
And as the undefinable essence of the force moving the heavenly
bodies； the undefinable essence of the forces of heat and electricity；
or of chemical affinity； or of the vital force； forms the content of
astronomy； physics； chemistry； botany； zoology； and so on； just in the
same way does the force of free will form the content of history。
But just as the subject of every science is the manifestation of
this unknown essence of life while that essence itself can only be the
subject of metaphysics； even the manifestation of the force of free
will in human beings in space； in time； and in dependence on cause
forms the subject of history； while free will itself is the subject of
metaphysics。
In the experimental sciences what we know we call the laws of
inevitability； what is unknown to us we call vital force。 Vital
force is only an expression for the unknown remainder over and above
what we know of the essence of life。
So also in history what is known to us we call laws of
inevitability； what is unknown we call free will。 Free will is for
history only an expression for the unknown remainder of what we know
about the laws of human life。
EP2｜CH11
CHAPTER XI
History examines the manifestations of man's free will in connection
with the external world in time and in dependence on cause； that is；
it defines this freedom by the laws of reason； and so history is a
science only in so far as this free will is defined by those laws。
The recognition of man's free will as something capable of
influencing historical events； that is； as not subject to laws； is the
same for history as the recognition of a free force moving the
heavenly bodies would be for astronomy。
That assumption would destroy the possibility of the existence of
laws； that is； of any science whatever。 If there is even a single body
moving freely； then the laws of Kepler and Newton are negatived and no
conception of the movement of the heavenly bodies any longer exists。
If any single action is due to free will； then not a single historical
law can exist； nor any conception of historical events。
For history； lines exist of the movement of human wills； one end
of which is hidden in the unknown but at the other end of which a
consciousness of man's will in the present moves in space； time； and
dependence on cause。
The more this field of motion spreads out before our eyes； the
more evident are the laws of that movement。 To discover and define
those laws is the problem of history。
From the standpoint from which the science of history now regards
its subject on the path it now follows； seeking the causes of events
in man's freewill； a scientific enunciation of those laws is
impossible； for however man's free will may be restricted； as soon
as we recognize it as a force not subject to law； the existence of law
becomes impossible。
Only by reducing this element of free will to the infinitesimal；
that is； by regarding it as an infinitely small quantity； can we
convince ourselves of the absolute inaccessibility of the causes；
and then instead of seeking causes； history will take the discovery of
laws as its problem。
The search for these laws has long been begun and the new methods of
thought which history must adopt are being worked out simultaneously
with the self…destruction toward which… ever dissecting and dissecting
the causes of phenomena… the old method of history is moving。
All human sciences have traveled along that path。 Arriving at
infinitesimals； mathematics； the most exact of sciences； abandons
the process of analysis and enters on the new process of the
integration of unknown； infinitely small； quantities。 Abandoning the
conception of cause； mathematics seeks law； that is； the property
common to all unknown； infinitely small； elements。
In another form but along the same path of reflection the other
sciences have proceeded。 When Newton enunciated the law of gravity
he did not say that the sun or the earth had a property of attraction；
he said that all bodies from the largest to the smallest have the
property of attracting one another； that is； leaving aside the
question of the cause of the movement of the bodies； he expressed
the property common to all bodies from the infinitely large to the
infinitely small。 The same is done by the natural sciences： leaving
aside the question of cause； they seek for laws。 History stands on the
same path。 And if history has for its object the study of the movement
of the nations and of humanity and not the narration of episodes in
the lives of individuals； it too； setting aside the conception of
cause； should seek the laws common to all the inseparably
interconnected infinitesimal elements of free will。
EP2｜CH12
CHAPTER XII
From the time the law of Copernicus was discovered and proved； the
mere recognition of the fact that it was not the sun but the earth
that moves sufficed to destroy the whole cosmogra