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throughout the earth to that fatal year when the young Bonaparte
tossed the Republic over to the House of Austria； the Doge；
crowned and robed； kneels humbly before the Saviour； the Virgin；
or St。 Mark。 In that vast Hall of the Five Hundred； the most
sumptuous room in the world； there is spread above the heads of
the Doge and Senators and Councilors； as an incentive to the
discharge of their duties on earth； a representation of the
blessed in Heaven。
From highest to lowest； the Venetians lived； moved； and had their
being in this religious environment； and； had their Republic been
loosely governed； its external policy would have been largely
swayed by this all…pervading religious feeling； and would have
become the plaything of the Roman Court。 But a democracy has
never been maintained save by the delegation of great powers to
its chosen leaders。 It was the remark of one of the foremost
American Democrats of the nineteenth century； a man who received
the highest honors which his party could bestow； that the
Constitution of the United States was made； not to promote
Democracy； but to check it。 This statement is true； and it is as
true of the Venetian Constitution as of the American。＇1＇
＇1＇ See Horatio Seymour's noted article in the North American
Review。
But while both the republics recognized the necessity of curbing
Democracy； the difference between the means employed was
world…wide。 The founders of the American Republic gave vast
powers and responsibilities to a president and unheard…of
authority to a supreme court； in the Venetian Republic the Doge
was gradually stripped of power； but there was evolved the
mysterious and unlimited authority of the Senate and Council of
Ten。
In these sat the foremost Venetians； thoroughly imbued with the
religious spirit of their time； but； religious as they were； they
were men of the world； trained in the polities of all Europe and
especially of Italy。
In a striking passage； Guizot has shown how the Crusaders who
went to the Orient by way of Italy and saw the papacy near at
hand came back skeptics。 This same influence shaped the statesmen
of Venice。 The Venetian Ambassadors were the foremost in Europe。
Their Relations are still studied as the clearest； shrewdest； and
wisest statements regarding the men and events in Europe at their
time。 All were noted for skill； but the most skillful were kept
on duty at Rome。 There was the source of danger。 The Doges；
Senators； and controlling Councilors had； as a rule； served in
these embassies； and they had formed lucid judgments as to
Italian courts in general and as to the Roman Court in
particular。 No men had known the Popes and the Curia more
thoroughly。 They had seen Innocent VIII。 buy the papacy for
money。 They had been at the Vatican when Alexander VI。 had won
renown as a secret murderer。 They had seen； close at hand； the
merciless cruelty of Julius II。 They had carefully noted the
crimes of Sixtus IV。； which culminated in the assassination of
Julian de' Medici beneath the dome of Florence at the moment the
Host was uplifted。 They had sat near Leo X。 while he enjoyed the
obscenities of the Calandria and the Mandragora；plays which； in
the most corrupt of modern cities； would； in our day； be stopped
by the police。 No wonder that； in one of their dispatches； they
speak of Rome as 〃the cloaca of the world。〃＇1＇
＇1＇ For Sixtus IV。 and his career； with the tragedy in the
Cathedral of Florence see Villari's Life of Machiavelli； English
Edition； vol。 ii。 pp。 341； 342。 For the passages in the
dispatches referred to； vide ibid。 vol。 i。 p。 198。
Naturally； then； while their religion showed itself in wonderful
monuments of every sort； their practical sense was shown by a
steady opposition to papal encroachments。
Of this combination of zeal for religion with hostility to
ecclesiasticism we have striking examples throughout the history
of the Republic。 While； in every other European state； cardinals；
bishops； priests； and monks were given leading parts in civil
administration and； in some states； a monopoly of civil honors；
the Republic of Venice not only excluded all ecclesiastics from
such posts； but； in cases which touched church interests； she
excluded even the relatives of ecclesiastics。 When church
authority decreed that commerce should not be maintained with
infidels and heretics； the Venetian merchants continued to deal
with Turks； Pagans； Germans； Englishmen； and Dutchmen as before。
When the Church decreed that the taking of interest for money was
sin； and great theologians published in Venice some of their
mightiest treatises demonstrating this view from Holy Scripture
and the Fathers； the Venetians continued borrowing and lending
money on usance。 When efforts were made to enforce that
tremendous instrument for the consolidation of papal power； the
bull In Coena Domini； Venice evaded and even defied it。 When the
Church frowned upon anatomical dissections； the Venetians allowed
Andreas Vesalius to make such dissections at their University of
Padua。 When Sixtus V。； the strongest of all the Popes； had
brought all his powers； temporal and spiritual； to bear against
Henry IV。 of France as an excommunicated heretic； and seemed
ready to hurl the thunderbolts of the Church against any power
which should recognize him； the Venetian Republic not only
recognized him； but treated his Ambassador with especial
courtesy。 When the other Catholic powers； save France； yielded to
papal mandates and sent no representatives to the coronation of
James I。 of England； Venice was there represented。 When Pope
after Pope issued endless diatribes against the horrors of
toleration； the Venetians steadily tolerated in their several
sorts of worship Jews and Greeks； Mohammedans and Armenians； with
Protestants of every sort who came to them on business。 When the
Roman Index forbade the publication of most important works of
leading authors； Venice demanded and obtained for her printers
rights which were elsewhere denied。
As to the religious restrictions which touched trade； the
Venetians in the public councils； and indeed the people at large；
had come to know perfectly what the papal theory meant；with
some of its promoters； fanaticism； but with the controlling power
at Rome； revenue； revenue to be derived from retailing
dispensations to infringe the holy rules。
This peculiar antithesisnowhere more striking than at Venice；
on the one side； religious fears and hopes； on the other； keen
insight into the ways of ecclesiasticismled to peculiar
compromises。 The bankers who had taken interest upon money； the
merchants who had traded with Moslems and heretics； in their last
hours frequently thought it best to perfect their title to
salvation by turning over large estates to the Church。 Under the
sway of this feeling； and especially of the terrors infused by
priests at deathbeds； mortmain had become in Venice； as in many
other parts of the world； one of the most serious of evils。 Thus
it was that the clergy came to possess between one fourth and one
third of the whole territory of the Republic； and in its Bergamo
district more than one half； and all this was exempt from
taxation。 Hence it was that the Venetian Senate found it
necessary to devise a legal cheek which should make such
absorption of estates by the Church more and more difficult。
There was a second cause of trouble。 In that religious atmosphere
of Venice； monastic orders of every sort grew luxuriantly； not
only absorbing more and more land to be held by the dead hand；
thus escaping the public burdens； but ever absorbing more and
more men and women； and thus depriving the state of any healthy
and normal service from them。 Here； too； the Senate thought it
best to interpose a check： it insisted that all new structures
for religious orders must be authorized by the State。
Yet another question flamed forth。 Of the monks of every sort
swarming through the city； many were luxurious and some were
criminal。 On these last； the Venetian Senate determined to lay
its hands； and in the first years of the seventeenth century all
these questions； and various other matters distasteful to the
Vatican； culminated in the seizure and imprisonment of two
ecclesiastics charged with various high crimes；