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through contagion。 According to revolutionary and French usage； the
legislator was bound to institute uniformity and to make things
symmetrical； having placed universal suffrage in political society； he
was likewise determined to place it in local society。 He had been
ordered to apply an abstract principle； that is to say； to legislate
according to a summary； superficial； and verbal notion which；
purposely curtailed and simplified to excess； did not correspond with
its aim。 He obeyed and did nothing more； he made no effort outside of
his instructions。 He did not propose to himself to restore local
society to its members； to revive it； to make it a living body；
capable of spontaneous； co…ordinate； voluntary action； and； to this
end； provided with indispensable organs。 He did not even take the
trouble to imagine； how it really is； I mean by this； complex and
diverse and inversely to legislators before 1789； and adversely to
legislators before and after 1789 outside of France； against all the
teachings of experience； against the evidence of nature； he refused to
recognize the fact that； in France； mankind are of two species； the
people of the towns and the people of the country； and that；
therefore； there are two types of local society； the urban commune and
the rural commune。 He was not disposed to take this capital difference
into consideration； he issued decrees for the Frenchman in general；
for the citizen in himself； for fictive men； so reduced that the
statute which suits them can nowhere suit the actual and complete man。
At one stroke； the legislative shears cut out of the same stuff；
according to the same pattern； thirty…six thousand examples of the
same coat； one coat indifferently for every commune； whatever its
shape； a coat too small for the city and too large for the village；
disproportionate in both cases； and useless beforehand； because it
could not fit very large bodies； nor very small ones。 Nevertheless；
once dispatched from Paris； people had to put the coat on and wear it；
it must answer for good or for ill； each donning his own for lack of
another better adjusted； hence the strangest attitudes for each； and；
in the long run； a combination of consequences which neither governors
nor the governed had foreseen。
V。 Rural or urban communes。
No distinction between the rural and the urban commune。 … Effects of
the law on the rural commune。 … Disproportion between the intelligence
of its elected representatives and the work imposed upon them。 … The
mayor and the municipal council。 … Lack of qualified members。 … The
secretary of the mayoralty。 … The chief or under chief of the
prefectorial bureau。
Let us consider these results in turn in the small and in the great
communes； clear enough and distinct at the two extremities of the
scale； they blend into each other at intermediate degrees； because
here they combine together； but in different proportions； according as
the commune； higher or lower in the scale； comes nearer to the village
or to the city。 … On this territory； too； subdivided since 1789； and；
so to say； crumbled to pieces by the Constituent Assembly； the small
communes are enormous in number； among the 36；000； more than 27；000
have less than 1000 inhabitants； and of these； more than 16；000 have
less than 500 inhabitants。＇24＇ Whoever has traveled over France； or
lived in this country； sees at once what sort of men compose such
purely rural groups； he has only to recall physiognomies and attitudes
to know to what extent in these rude brains； rendered torpid by the
routine of manual labor and oppressed by the cares of daily life； how
narrow and obstructed are the inlets to the mind； how limited is their
information in the way of facts； how； in the way of ideas； the
acquisition of them is slow； what hereditary distrust separates the
illiterate mass from the lettered class； what an almost insurmountable
wall the difference of education； of habits； and of manners interposes
in France between the blouse and the dress…coat； why； if each commune
contains a few cultivated individuals and a few notable proprietors；
universal suffrage sets them aside； or at least does not seek them out
for the municipal council or the mayoralty。 … Before 1830； when the
prefect appointed the municipal councilors and the mayor； these were
always on hand； under the monarchy of July and a limited suffrage；
they were still on hand； at least for the most part； under the second
Empire； whatever the elected municipal council might be； the mayor；
who was appointed by the prefect； and even outside of this council；
might be one of the least ignorant and least stupid even in the
commune。 At the present day （1889）； it is only accidentally and by
chance that a noble or bourgeois； in a few provinces and in certain
communes； may become mayor or municipal councilor； it is； however；
essential that he should be born on the soil； long established there；
resident and popular。 Everywhere else the numerical majority； being
sovereign； tends to select its candidates from among the average
people： in the village； he is a man of average rural intelligence；
and； mostly； in the village a municipal council which； as narrow…
minded as its electors； elects a mayor equally as narrow…minded as
itself Such are； from now on； the representatives and directors of
communal interests； except when they themselves are affected by
personal interests to which they are sensitive； their inertia is only
equaled by their incapacity＇25＇
Four times a year a bundle of elaborately drawn papers； prepared by
the prefecture； are submitted to these innately blind paralytics；
large sheets divided into columns from top to bottom； with tabular
headings from right to left； and covered with printed texts and
figures in writing … details of receipts and expenses； general
centimes； special centimes； obligatory centimes； optional centimes；
ordinary centimes； extra centimes； with their sources and employment；
preliminary budget； final budget； corrected budget； along with legal
references； regulations； and decisions bearing on each article。 In
short； a methodical table as specific as possible and highly
instructive to a jurist or accountant； but perfect jargon to peasants；
most of whom can scarcely write their name and who； on Sundays； are
seen standing before the advertisement board＇26＇ trying to spell out
the Journal Officiel； whose abstract phrases； beyond their reach； pass
over their heads in aerial and transient flight； like some confused
rustling of vague and unknown forms。 To guide them in political life；
much more difficult than in private life； they require a similar guide
to the one they take in the difficult matters of their individual
life； a legal or business adviser； one that is qualified and
competent； able to understand the prefecture documents； sitting
alongside of them to explain their budget； rights and limits of their
rights； the financial resources； legal expedients； and consequences of
a law； one who can arrange their debates； make up their accounts；
watch daily files of bills； attend to their business at the county
town； throughout the entire series of legal formalities and attendance
on the bureaus； … in short； some trusty person； familiar with
technicalities； who they might choose to select。 … Such a person was
found in Savoy； before the annexation to France； a notary or lawyer
who； practicing in the neighborhood or at the principal town； and with
five or six communes for clients； visited them in turn； helped them
with his knowledge and intelligence； attended their meetings and；
besides； served them as scribe； like the present secretary of the
mayoralty； for about the same pay； amounting in all to about the same
total of fees or salaries。＇27＇ … At the present time； there is nobody
in the municipal council to advise and give information to its
members； the schoolmaster is their secretary； and he cannot be； and
should not be； other than a scribe。 He reads in a monotonous tone of
voice the long financial enigma which French public book…keeping； too
perfect； offers to their divination； and which nobody； save one who is
educated to it； can clearly comprehend until after weeks of study。
They listen all agog。 Some； adjusting their spectacles； try to pick
out among so many articles the one they want； the amount of taxes they
have to pay。 The sum is too large； the assessments are excessive； it
is important that the number of additional centimes should be reduced；
and therefore that less money should be expended。 Hence； if there is
any special item of expense which can be got rid of by a refusal； they
set it aside by voting No； until some new law or decree from above
obliges them to say Yes。 But； as things go； nearly all the expenses
designated on the paper are obligatory； willingly or not； these must
be met； and there is no way to pay them outside of the additional
centimes； however numerou