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rule according to the measurements of square and compass。
At this date； in effect； the turn of mind； the talent； the ways of the
Roman architect； his object； his resources and his means of execution；
are already those of his French successor； the conditions around him
in the Roman world are equivalent； behind him in Roman history the
precedents； ancient and recent； are almost the same。
In the first place；＇30＇ there is； since emperor Augustus； the
absolute monarchy； and； since the Antonines； administrative
centralization the result of which is that
* all the old national and municipal communities are broken up or
crushed out；
* all collective existences chilled or extinguished；
* local patriotism slowly worn away；
* an increasing diminution of individual initiative；
and； under the invasive interference； direction； and providence of the
State； one hundred millions of men become more and more passive and
separated from each other。＇31＇
And as a result； in full enjoyment of peace and internal prosperity
under the appearances of union； force； and health； latent feebleness；
and； as in France on the approach of 1789； a coming dissolution。
There is next； as after 1789 in France； the total collapse； not from
below and among the people； but from above and through the army； a
worse collapse than in France； prolonged for fifty years of anarchy；
civil wars； local usurpations； ephemeral tyrannies； urban seditions；
rural jacqueries； brigandage； famines； and invasions along the whole
frontier； with such a ruin of agriculture and other useful activities；
with such a diminution of public and private capital； with such a
destruction of human lives that； in twenty years； the number of the
population seems to have diminished one half。＇32＇ There is； finally；
as after 1799； in France； the re…establishment of order brought about
more slowly； but by the same means； the army and a dictatorship； in
the rude hands of three or four great military parvenus； Pannonians or
Dalmatians； Bonapartes of Sirmium or of Scutari； they too； of a new
race or of intact energy； adventurers and children of their own deeds；
the last Diocletian； like Napoleon； a restorer and an innovator。
Around them； as around Napoleon； to aid them in their civil
undertakings； is a crowd of expert administrators and eminent
jurisconsults； all practitioners； statesmen； and businessmen； and yet
men of culture； logicians； and philosophers。 They were imbued with the
double governmental and humanitarian view； which for three centuries
Greek speculation and Roman practice had introduced into minds and
imaginations。 This view； at once leveling and authoritative； tending
to exaggerate the attributes of the State and the supreme power of the
prince；＇33＇ was nevertheless inclined
* to put natural right in the place of positive law；＇34＇
* to preferring equity and logic to antiquity and to custom；
* to reinstate the dignity of man among the qualities of mankind；
* to enhance the condition of the slave； of the provincial； of the
debtor； of the bastard； of woman； of the child； and
* to recover for the human community all its inferior members； foreign
or degraded； which the ancient constitution of the family and of the
city had excluded from it。
Therefore Napoleon could find the outlines of his construction in the
political； legislative； and judicial organizations extending from
Diocletian to Constantine； and beyond these down to Theodosius。 At the
base； popular sovereignty；＇35＇ the powers of the people delegated
unconditionally to one man。 This omnipotence conferred； theoretically
or apparently； through the free choice of citizens； but really through
the will of the army。 No protection against the Prince's arbitrary
edict； except a no less arbitrary rescript from the same hand。 His
successor designated； adopted； and qualified by himself。 A senate for
show； a council of state for administration； all local powers
conferred from above； cities under tutelage。 All subjects endowed with
the showy title of citizen； and all citizens reduced to the humble
condition of taxpayers and of people under control。 An administration
of a hundred thousand officials taking all services into its hands；
comprising public instruction； public succor； and public supplies of
food； together with systems of worship。 This was at first pagan cults；
and after Constantine； the Christian cult。 All these services were
classified； ranked； co…coordinated； carefully defined in such a way as
not to encroach on each other； and carefully combined in such a way as
to complete each other。 An immense hierarchy of transferable
functionaries was kept at work from above on one hundred and eighty
square leagues of territory； thirty populations of different race and
language…Syrians； Egyptians； Numidians； Spaniards； Gauls； Britons；
Germans； Greeks； Italians … subject to the same uniform Régime。 The
territory was divided like a checker…board； on arithmetical and
geometrical principles； into one hundred or one hundred and twenty
small provinces； old nations or States dismembered and purposely cut
up so as to put an end forever to natural； spontaneous； and viable
groups。 A minute and verified census taking place every fifteen years
to correctly assign land taxes。 An official and universal language； a
State system of worship； and； very soon； a Church and State orthodoxy。
A systematic code of laws； full and precise； admirable for the rule of
private life； a sort of moral geometry in which the theorems；
rigorously linked together； are attached to the definitions and axioms
of abstract justice。 A scale of grades； one above the other； which
everybody may ascend from the first to the last； titles of nobility
more and more advanced； suited to more and more advanced functions；
spectabiles； illustres； clarissimi； perfectissimi； analogous to
Napoleon's Barons； Counts； Dukes； and Princes。 A programme of
promotion once exhibiting； and on which are still seen； common
soldiers； peasants； a shepherd； a barbarian； the son of a cultivator
（colon）； the grandson of a slave； mounting gradually upward to the
highest dignities； becoming patrician； Count； Duke； commander of the
cavalry； C？sar； Augustus； and donning the imperial purple； enthroned
amid the most sumptuous magnificence and the most elaborate ceremonial
prostrations； a being called God during his lifetime； and after death
adored as a divinity； and dead or alive； a complete divinity on
earth。＇36＇
So colossal an edifice； so admirably adjusted； so mathematical； could
not wholly perish； its hewn stones were too massive； too nicely
squared； too exactly fitted； and the demolisher's hammer could not
reach down to its deepest foundations。 … This one； through its shaping
and its structure； through its history and its duration； resembles the
stone edifices which the same people at the same epoch elevated on the
same soil； the aqueducts； amphitheatres； and triumphal arches； the
Coliseum； the baths of Diocletian and of Caracalla。
The medieval man； using their intact foundations and their shattered
fragments； built here and there； haphazard； according to the
necessities of the moment； planting his Gothic towers between
Corinthian columns against the panels of walls still standing。＇37＇
But； under his incoherent masonry； he observed the beautiful forms；
the precious marbles； the architectural combinations； the symmetrical
taste of an anterior and superior art； he felt that his own work was
rude。 The new world； to all thinking minds； was miserable compared
with the old one； its languages seemed a patois （crude dialect）； its
literature mere stammering or driveling； its law a mass of abuses or a
mere routine； its feudality anarchy； and its social arrangements；
disorder。 … In vain had the medieval man striven to escape through all
issues； by the temporal road and by the spiritual road； by the
universal and absolute monarchy of the German Cesars； and by the
universal and absolute monarchy of the Roman pontiffs。 At the end of
the fifteenth century the Emperor still possessed the golden globe；
the golden crown； the scepter of Charlemagne and of Otho the Great；
but； after the death of Frederick II。； he was nothing more than a
majesty for show； the Pope still wore the tiara； still held the
pastoral staff and the keys of Gregory VII。 and of Innocent III。； but；
after the death of Boniface VIII。； he was nothing more than a majesty
of the Church。 Both abortive restorations had merely added ruins to
ruins； while the phantom of the ancient empire alone remained erect
amid so many fragments。 Grand in its outlines and decorations； it
stood there； august； dazzling； in a halo； the unique masterpiece of
art and of reason； as the ideal form of human society。 For ten
centuries this specter haunted the medieval epoch； and nowhere to such
an extent as in Italy。＇38＇
It reappears the last time in 1800； starting up in a