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an extent as in Italy。＇38＇
It reappears the last time in 1800； starting up in and taking firm
hold of the magnificent； benighted imagination of the great
Italian；＇39＇ to whom the opportunity afforded the means for executing
the grand Italian dream of the Middle Ages； it is according to this
retrospective vision that the Diocletian of Ajaccio； the Constantine
of the Concordat； the Justinian of the Civil Code； the Theodosius of
the Tuileries and of St。 Cloud reconstructed France。
This does not mean that he copies … he restores； his conception is not
plagiarism； but a case of atavism； it comes to him through the nature
of his intellect and through racial traditions。 In the way of social
and political conceptions； as in literature and in art； his
spontaneous taste is ultra…classic。 We detect this in his mode of
comprehending the history of France； State historians； 〃encouraged by
the police；〃 must make it to order； they must trace it 〃from the end
of Louis XIV。 to the year VIII；〃 and their object must be to show how
superior the new architecture is to the old one。＇40＇ 〃The constant
disturbance of the finances must be noted； the chaos of the provincial
assemblies； 。 。 。 the pretensions of the parliaments； the lack of
energy and order in the administration； that parti…colored France with
no unity of laws or of administration； being rather a union of twenty
kingdoms than one single State； so that one breathes on reaching the
epoch in which people enjoy the benefits of the unity of the laws； of
the administration； and of the territory。〃 In effect； he breathes ； in
thus passing from the former to the latter spectacle； he finds real
intellectual pleasure； his eyes； offended with Gothic disorder； turn
with relief and satisfaction to majestic simplicity and classic
regularity； his eyes are those of a Latin architect brought up in the
〃école de Rome。〃
This is so true that； outside of this style； he admits of no other。
Societies of a different type seem to him absurd。 He misconceives
their local propriety and the historical reasons for their existence。
He takes no account of their solidity。 He is going to dash himself
against Spain and against Russia； and he has no comprehension whatever
of England。＇41＇ …This is so true that； wherever he places his hand he
applies his own social system； he imposes on annexed territories and
on vassal＇42＇ countries the same uniform arrangements； his own
administrative hierarchy； his own territorial divisions and sub…
divisions； his own conscription； his civil code； his constitutional
and ecclesiastical system； his university； his system of equality and
promotion； the entire French system； and； as far as possible； the
language； literature； drama； and even the spirit of his France； … in
brief； civilization as he conceives it； so that conquest becomes
propaganda； and； as with his predecessors； the Cesars of Rome； he
sometimes really fancies that the establishment of his universal
monarchy is a great benefit to Europe。
_____________________________________________________________________
Notes：
＇1＇ De Tocqueville； 〃L'Ancien régime et la Revolution。〃 p。 64 and
following pages； also p。354 and following pages。 … 〃The Ancient
Régime；〃 p。 368。
＇2＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 I。； book I。； especially pp。 16； 17； 55； 61； 62…
65。 （Laffont I。； 326； 354； 357 to 360。）
＇3＇ 〃The Ancient Regime；〃 pp。… 36…59。 （Laff。 I。 pp。 33…48。）
＇4＇ Ibid。； pp。 72…77。 （Laff。 I。 pp。 59 to 61。）
＇5＇ Ibid。； pp。 78…82。 （Laff。 I。 pp。 50…52）
＇6＇ Cf。 Frédéric Masson； 〃Le Marquis de Grignan；〃 vol。 I。
＇7＇ The Revolution；〃 I。； p。 161 and following pages； II。； book VI。；
ch。 I。； especially p。 80 and following pages。 （Laffont I。 428 to 444；
632 and II 67 to 69。）
＇8＇ Ibid。； I。； P。193 and following pages； and p。226 and following
pages。（Ed。 Laffont。 I。 449 to 452； 473 to 481。）
＇9＇ 〃Souvenirs〃； by PASQUIER （Etienne…Dennis； duc）； chancelier de
France。 in VI volumes； Librarie Plon； Paris 1893。 I。； 148 （in
relation to the institution prefects and sub…prefects）： 〃The
perceptible good resulting from this change was the satisfaction
arising from being delivered in one day from a herd of insignificant
men； mostly without any merit or shadow of capacity and to who the
administration of department and arrondissement had been surrendered
for the past ten years。 As nearly all of them sprung from the lowest
ranks in society； they were only the more disposed to make the weight
of their authority felt。〃
＇10＇ Guyot； 〃Répertoire de jurisprudence〃 （1785）； article King： 〃It is
a maxim of feudal law that the veritable ownership of lands； the
domain； directum dominium； is vested in the dominant seignior or
suzerain。 The domain in use； belonging to the vassal or tenant；
affords him really no right except to its produce。〃
＇11＇ Luchaire；〃 Histoire des institutions monarchiques de la France
sous les premiers Capétiens；〃 I。； 28； 46。 （Texts of Henry I。； Philip
I。； Louis VI。； and Louis VII。） 〃A divine minister。〃 … （Kings are）
〃servants of the kingdom of God。〃 … 〃Gird on the ecclesiastical sword
for the punishment of the wicked。〃 … 〃 Kings and priests alone； by
ecclesiastical ordination； are made sacred by the anointing of holy
oils。〃
＇12＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 III。； p。94。 （Laffont II； p。 75）
＇13＇ Janssen； 〃L'Allemagne à la fin du moyen age 〃 （French
translation）； I。； 457。 （On the introduction of Roman law into
Germany。） … Declaration of the jurists at the Diet of Roncaglia： 〃Quod
principi placuit； legis habet vigorem。〃 … Edict of Frederick I。； 1165：
〃Vestigia praedecessorum suorum； divorum imperatorum； magni
Constantini scilicet et Justiniani et Valentini； 。 。 。 sacras eorum
leges； 。 。 。 divina oracula。 。 。 。 Quodcumque imperator constituerit；
vel cognoscens decreverit； vel edicto praeceperit； legem esse
constat。〃 … Frederick II。： 〃Princeps legibus solutus est。〃 … Louis of
Bavaria： 〃Nos qui sumus supra jus。〃
＇14＇ Guyot； ibid。； article Régales。 〃The great 'régales；' majora
regalia； are those which belong to the King； jure singulari et
proprio； and which are incommunicable to another； considering that
they cannot be divorced from the scepter； being the attributes of
sovereignty； such as 。 。 。 the making of laws； the interpretation or
change of these； the last appeal from the decisions of magistrates；
the creation of offices； the declaration of war or of peace； 。 。 。 the
coining of money； the augmentation of titles or of values； the
imposition of taxes on the subjects； 。 。 。 the exemption of certain
persons from these； the award of pardon for crimes； 。 。 。 the creation
of nobles； the foundation of universities； 。 。 。 the assembling of the
états…généraux or provinciaux； etc。〃 … Bossuet； 〃Politique tirée de
l'écriture sainte〃： The entire state exists in the person of the
prince。〃 … Louis XIV。； 〃？uvres；〃 I。； 50 （to his son）： 〃You should be
aware that kings can naturally dispose fully and freely of all
possessions belonging as well to persons of the church as to laymen；
to make use of at all times with wise economy； that is to say；
according to the general requirements of their government。〃 … Sorel；
〃L'Europe et la Révolution fran？aise；〃 I。； 231 （Letter of the
〃intendant〃 Foucault）： 〃It is an illusion； which cannot proceed from
anything but blind preoccupation； that of making any distinction
between obligations of conscience and the obedience which is due to
the King。〃
＇15＇ 〃The Ancient Régime；〃 p。9 and following pages。 … 〃Correspondance
de Mirabeau et du Comte de le Marck；〃 II。； 74 （Note by Mirabeau； July
3； 1790）： 〃Previous to the present revolution； royal authority was
incomplete： the king was compelled to humor his nobles； to treat with
the parliaments；； to be prodigal of favors to the court。〃
＇16＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 III。； p。318。 （Laff。II。 p。 237…238）。 … 〃 The
Ancient Régime；〃 p。 10 （Laff。 I。 25n。） Speech by the Chancellor
Séguier； 1775： 〃Our kings have themselves declared that they are
fortunately powerless to attack property。〃
＇17＇ Rousseau's text in the 〃Contrat Social。〃 … On the meaning and
effect of this principle cf 〃The Revolution；〃 I。； 217 and following
pages； and III。； book VI。； ch。 I。 Laff。 182…186 et II。 47 to 74）。
＇18＇ The opinion； or rather the resignation which confers omnipotence
on the central power； goes back to the second half of the fifteenth
century； after the Hundred Years' war； and is due to that war； the
omnipotence of the king was then the only refuge against the English
invaders； and the ravages of the écorcheurs。 … Cf。 Fortescue； 〃In
leges Angli？；〃 and〃 〃The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited
Monarchy〃 （end of the fifteenth century）； on the difference at this
date between the English and the French government。 … The same
decision is found in the dispatches of the Venetian ambassadors of
this date： 〃In France everything is based on the will of the king。
No