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Convention； through the dispersion and persecution of nuns and monks；
they were deprived of a body of able male and female volunteer
servants who； instituted for centuries； gave their labor without
stint。 Under the Convention； all their possessions； the real…estate
and the debts due them； had been confiscated；＇52＇ and； in the
restitution to them of the remainder at the end of three years； a
portion of their real…estate is found to have been sold； while their
claims； settled by assignats or converted into state securities； had
died out or dwindled to such an extent that； in 1800； after the final
bankruptcy of the assignats and of the state debt； the ancient
patrimony of the poor is two…thirds or one…half reduced。＇53＇ It is
for this reason that the eight hundred charitable institutions which；
in 1789； had one hundred thousand or one hundred and ten thousand
occupants； could not support more than one…third or one…half of them；
on the other hand； it may be estimated that the number of applicants
tripled； from which it follows that； in 1800； there is less than one
bed in the hospitals and asylums for six children； either sick or
infirm。
V。 Old and New。
Complaints of the Poor； of Parents； and of Believers。 … Contrast
between old and new educational facilities。 … Clandestine instruction。
… Jacobin teachers。
Under this wail of the wretched who vainly appeal for help； for
nursing and for beds； another moan is heard； not so loud； but more
extensive； that of parents unable to educate their children； boys or
girls； and give them any species of instruction either primary or
secondary。
Previous to the Revolution 〃small schools〃 were innumerable： in
Normandy； Picardy； Artois； French Flanders； Lorraine and Alsace； in
the Ile…de…France； in Burgundy and Franche…Comté； in the Dombes；
Dauphiny and Lyonnais； in the Comtat； in the Cévennes and in
Béarn；＇54＇ almost as many schools could be counted as there were
parishes； in all probably twenty or twenty…five thousand for the
thirty…seven thousand parishes in France； and all frequented and
serviceable； for； in 1789； forty…seven men out of a hundred； and
twenty…six girls or women out of a hundred； could read and write or；
at least； sign their names。＇55＇ … And these schools cost the treasury
nothing； next to nothing to the tax…payer； and very little to parents。
In many places； the congregations； supported by their own property；
furnished male or female teachers； … Frères de la Doctrine Chrétienne；
Frères de Saint…Antoine； Ursulines； Visitandines； Filles de la
Charité； S？urs de Saint…Charles； S？urs de la Providence； S？urs de la
Sagesse； S？urs de Notre…Dame de la Croix； Vatelottes； Miramiones；
Manettes du Tiers Ordre； and many others。 Elsewhere； the curate of the
parish was obliged through a parish regulation to teach himself； or to
see that his vicar taught。 A very large number of factories or of
communes had received legacies for maintaining a school； the
instructor often enjoyed； through an endowment； a métayer farm or a
piece of ground； he was generally provided with a lodging； if he was a
layman he was exempt； besides； from the most onerous taxes； as sexton；
beadle； chorister or bell…ringer； he had small perquisites； finally；
he was paid for each child four or five sous＇56＇ a month； sometimes；
especially in poor districts； he taught only from All Saints' day down
to the spring； and followed another occupation during the summer。 In
short； his salary and his comfort were about those of a rural vicar or
of a suitably paid curate。
Higher education （éducation secondaire） was provided for in the same
manner； and still better by local and private enterprise。 More than
one hundred and eight establishments furnished it completely； and more
than four hundred and fifty…four partially。＇57＇ Like the others； and
not less liberally than the smaller schools； these were supported by
endowments； some of which were very ample and even magnificent； a
certain upper school in the provinces； Rodez；＇58＇ possessed twenty…
seven thousand livres income； and one in Paris； Louis…le…Grand； an
income of four hundred and fifty thousand livres； each of these； large
or small； having its own distinct endowment； in real property； lands
and houses； and in revenues on privileges derived from the hotel…de…
ville； the octroi and from transportation lines。 … And； in each of
them； the scholarships； or half…scholarships； were numerous…six
hundred alone in Louis…le…Grand。 In total； out of the seventy…two
thousand scholars in the kingdom； there were forty thousand for whom a
high…school education was gratuitous or half…gratuitous； nowadays； it
is less than five thousand out of seventy…nine thousand。＇59＇ The
reason why is that； before 1789； the revenues were not only large； but
the expenses were small。 The salary of a head…master； teacher； or
assistant…teacher was not large； say four hundred and fifty； six
hundred； nine hundred； or twelve hundred livres per annum at most；
just enough for a single man to live on； in effect； most of the
teachers were priests or monks； Benedictines； regular canons；
Oratorians； the latter alone officiating in thirty colleges。 Not
subject to the expenses and necessities which a family imposes； they
were abstemious through piety； or at least through discipline； habit；
and respect for persons； frequently； the statutes of the school
obliged them to live in common；＇60＇ which was much cheaper than living
apart。 … The same economical accord is found with all the wheels； in
the arrangement and working of the entire system。 A family； even a
rural one； never lived far away from a high…school； for there were
high…schools in nearly all the small towns； seven or eight in each
department； fifteen in Ain； seventeen in Aisne。＇61＇ The child or
youth； from eight to eighteen； had not to endure the solitude and
promiscuity of a civil barracks； he remained within reach of his
parents。 If they were too poor to pay the three hundred francs board
required by the school； they placed their son in a respectable family；
in that of some artisan or acquaintance in the town； there； with three
or four others； he was lodged； had his washing done； was cared for and
watched； had a seat at the family table and by the fireside； and was
provided with light； every week； he received from the country his
supply of bread and other provisions； the mistress of the house cooked
for him and mended his clothes； the whole for two or three livres a
month。＇62＇ … Thus do institutions flourish that arise spontaneously on
the spot； they adapt themselves to circumstances； conform to
necessities； utilize resources and afford the maximum of returns for
the minimum of expense。
This great organization disappears entirely； bodily and with all its
possessions； like a ship that sinks beneath the waves。 The teachers
are dismissed； exiled； transported； and proscribed； its property is
confiscated； sold and destroyed； and the remainder in the hands of the
State is not restored and again applied to its former service。 Public
education； worse treated than public charity； does not recover a shred
of its former endowment。 Consequently； in the last years of the
Directory； and even early in the Consulate；＇63＇ there is scarcely any
instruction given in France； in fact； for the past eight or nine years
it has ceased；＇64＇ or become private and clandestine。 Here and there；
a few returned priests； in spite of the intolerant law and with the
connivance of the local authorities； also a few scattered nuns； teach
in a contraband fashion a few small groups of Catholic children ； five
or six little girls around a disguised Ursuline nun spell out the
alphabet in a back room；＇65＇ a priest without tonsure or cassock
secretly receives in the evening two or three youths whom he makes
translate the De Viris。 … During the intervals； indeed； of the Reign
of Terror； before the 13th of Vendémiaire and the 18th of Fructidor；
sundry schools spring up again like tufts of grass in a mowed pasture…
ground； but only in certain spots and meagerly； moreover； as soon as
the Jacobin returns to power he stubbornly stamps them out；＇66＇ he
wants to have teaching all to himself。 … Now the institution by which
the State pretends to replace the old and free establishments makes a
figure only on paper。 One école centrale in each department is
installed or decreed； making eighty eight on the territory of ancient
France； this hardly supplies the place of the eight or nine hundred
high…schools （collèges）； especially as these new schools are hardly
viable； being in ruin at the very start；＇67＇ poorly maintained； badly
furnished； with no preparatory schools nor adjacent boarding…
houses；＇68＇ the programme of studies being badly arranged and parents
suspicious of the spirit of the studies。＇69＇ Thus； there is little or
no attendance at most of the courses of lectures； only those on
mathematics are followe