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secretary； a productive translator；＇8＇ a lawyer； formerly councilor in
a provincial court of justice； then third…consul； then Duc de
Plaisance and arch…chancellor of the Empire and Cambacérès； second…
consul； then Duc de Parme and arch…chancellor of the Empire； both of
them being princes。 Similarly； the marshals are new men and soldiers
of fortune； a few of them born in the class of inferior nobles or in
the ordinary bourgeois class； mostly among the people or even amongst
the populace； and； in its lowest ranks； Masséna； the son of a wine…
dealer； once a cabin…boy and then common soldier and non…commissioned
officer for fourteen years； Ney； son of a cooper； Lefebvre； son of a
miller； Murat； son of a tavern…keeper； Lannes； son of an hostler； and
Augereau； son of a mason and a female dealer in fruit and vegetables。
… Under the Republic； noble birth consigned； or confined； the ablest
and best qualified men for their posts to a voluntary obscurity； only
too glad when their names did not condemn them to exile； imprisonment
or to the guillotine。 Under the Empire； M。 de Talleyrand is prince of
Benevento； minister of foreign affairs and vice…grand…elector with a
salary of five hundred thousand francs。 We see personages of old
nobility figuring in the first ranks： among the clergy M。 de
Roquelaure； M。 de Boisgelin； M。 de Broglie； M。 Ferdinand de Rohan； in
the magistracy； M。 Séguier； M。 Pasquier； M。 Molé； on the domestic and
decorative staff of the palace； Comte de Ségur； grand…master of
ceremonies； Comte de Montesquiou…Fézensac； grand…chamberlain； also as
chamberlains； Comtes d'Aubusson de la Feuillade； de Brigode； de Croy；
de Coutades； de Louvois； de Brancas； de Gontaut； de Grammont； de
Beauvau； de Lur…Saluces； d'Haussonville； de Noailles； de Chabot； de
Turenne；＇9＇ and other bearers of historic names。 … During the
Revolution； at each new parliamentarian； popular or military coup
d'état the notabilities of the vanquished party were always excluded
from office and generally outlawed。 After the coup d'état of Brumaire；
not only are the vanquished of the old parties all brought back under
the protection of the law； but； again； their notables are promoted to
the highest offices。 Among the monarchists of the Constituent Assembly
Mabuet is made councilor of State； and Maury archbishop of Paris；
forty…seven other ecclesiastics who； like himself； refused to take the
oath to the civil constitution of the clergy； are appointed； like him；
to episcopal thrones。 Among the Feuillants of the Legislative
Assembly； Vaublanc is made prefect； Beugnot a councilor of State and
minister of the finances in the grand…duchy of Berg； Matthieu Dumas a
brigadier…general and director of reviews； Narbonne becomes the aid…
de…camp and the intimate interlocutor of Napoleon； and then ambassador
to Vienna； if Lafayette had been willing； not to ask for but to accept
the post； he would have been made a marshal of France。 … Among the few
Girondists or Federalists who did not perish after the 2nd June；
Riouffe is prefect and baron； Lanjuinais is senator and count； among
others proscribed； or half proscribed； the new Régime restores to and
places at the head of affairs the superior and special employees whom
the Reign of Terror had driven away； or singled out for slaughter；
particularly the heads of the financial and diplomatic services who；
denounced by Robespierre on the 8th Thermidor； or arrested on the
morning of the 9th already felt their necks under the blade of the
guillotine； Reinhart and Otto are ambassadors； Mollien is count and
treasury minister； Miot becomes councilor of state； Comte de Melito
minister of finances at Naples； while Gaudin is made minister of
finances in France and Duc de Ga？te。 Among the transported or
fugitives of Fructidor； Barthélemy becomes senator； Barbé…Marbois
director of the Treasury and first president of the Cour des Comptes；
Siméon； councilor of State and then minister of justice in Westphalia；
Portalis is made minister of worship； and Fontanes grand…master of the
University。 The First Consul passes the sponge over all political
antecedents： not only does he summon to his side the moderates and
half…moderates of the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies； of the
Convention and of the Directory； but again he seeks recruits among
pure royalists and pure Jacobins； among the men the most devoted to
the ancient Régime and amongst those most compromised by the
Revolution； at both extremities of the most extreme opinions。 We have
just seen； on the one side； what hereditary favorites of a venerable
royalty； what born supporters of the deposed dynasty； are elevated by
him to the first of his magisterial； clerical and court dignities。 On
the other hand； apart from Chasset； Roederer and Grégoire； apart from
Fourcroy； Bérlier and Réal； apart from Treilhard and Boulay de La
Meurthe； he employs others branded or noted for terrible acts； Barère
himself； at least for a certain period； and in the sole office he was
fitted for； that of a denunciator； gazetteer and stimulator of public
opinion； everybody has a place according to his faculties； and each
has rank according to his usefulness and merit。 Barère； consequently；
becomes a paid spy and pamphleteer； Drouet； the postmaster； who
arrested the royal family at Varennes； becomes sub…prefect at Sainte…
Menehould； Jean…Bon Saint…André； one of the Committee of Public
Safety； is made prefect at Mayence； Merlin de Douai； reporter of the
law against suspects； is prosecuting attorney in the court of
cassation； Fouché； whose name tells all； becomes minister of state and
Duke of Otranto； nearly all of the survivors of the Convention are
made judges of première instancc or of appeal； revenue…collectors；
deputies； prefects； foreign consuls； police commissioners； inspectors
of reviews； head…clerks in the post…offices； custom…houses and tax…
offices； while； in 1808； among these functionaries； one hundred and
thirty were regicides。＇10＇
II。 Ambitions during the Ancient Regime。
The need of success。 … Initiation and conditions of promotion under
the old monarchy。 … Effect on minds。 … Ambitions are limited。 … The
external outlets open to them。 …
To make one's way； get ahead； and succeed in the world is now the
dominant thought in the minds of men。 Before 1789； this thought had
not acquired sovereign control in their minds； it found that there
were rival ideas to contend with； and it had only half…developed
itself； its roots had not sunk down deep enough to monopolize the
activity of the imagination； to absorb the will and possess the mind
entirely； and the reason is that it lacked both air and victuals。
Promotion； under the old monarchy； was slow； and in the first place；
because the monarchy was old and because in every order which is not
new each new generation finds that every office is filled； and next；
because； in this old order founded on tradition and heredity； future
vacancies were supplied long beforehand。 The great social staircase
led to several stories ； each man could ascend every step of his own
flight； but he could not mount above it； the landing reached； he found
closed doors and nearly insurmountable barriers。 The story above was
reserved to its own inhabitants； they occupied it now and were still
to occupy it in time to come； the inevitable successors of the titular
possessor were seen around him on each step； his equals； peers and
neighbors； one or the other often designated by name as his legal
heir； the purchaser of his survivorship。 In those days； not only was
the individual himself considered； his merits and his services； but
likewise his family and ancestry； his state and condition； the society
he entered into； the 〃salon〃 he maintained； his fortune and his
followers； these antecedents and surroundings composed the quality of
the personage； without this requisite quality； he could not go beyond
the landing…place。 Strictly speaking； a personage born on the upper
steps of one story might sometimes succeed in mounting the lowest
steps of the next story； but there he stopped。 In short； it was always
considered by those on the lower story that the upper story was
inaccessible and； moreover； uninhabitable。
Accordingly； most of the public offices； in the finances； in the
administration； in the judiciary； in the parliaments； in the army； at
court； were private property as is now the case with the places of
advocates； notaries and brokers； they had to be bought to enable one
to follow these pursuits； and were very dear； one had to possess a
large capital and be content beforehand to derive only a mediocre
revenue from it； 10； 5 and sometimes 3 ％ on the purchase…money。＇11＇
The place once acquired； especially if an important one； involved
official parade； receptions； an open table； a large annual outlay；＇12＇
it often ran the purchaser in debt ； he knew that his acquisition
would bring him more