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the systematic centralization instituted by the First Consul。 The Duc
d'Angoulême； when； in 1815； he was paraded about the country； among
the bridges； canals； and splendid roads of Languedoc； on being
reminded that these fine works were formerly executed by the 〃ètats〃
of the province； dryly replied 〃We prefer the departments to the
provinces。〃＇47＇
With the exception of a few antiquarian and half…rustic royalists；
nobody objects； there is no thought of reconstructing the machine on
another plan； in sum； nobody is dissatisfied with the way it works。 It
works well； most effectively； under the Restoration as under the
Empire； it renders to those who are interested the service demanded of
it； it goes on providing better and better for the two grand objects
of local society； care for the public highways and protection against
natural calamities。 In 1814； its net results are already admirable and
do it credit … reparation of the ruins accumulated by the
Revolution；＇48＇ the continuation and completion of former projects；
new and striking enterprises； dikes against the sea and the rivers；
basins； moles； and jetties in the harbors； quays； and bridges； locks
and canals； public edifices； 27；200 kilometers of national roads and
18；600 kilometers of departmental roads；＇49＇ without counting the
district roads just laid out； all this done regularly； exactly； and
economically； Charles Nicolas； 〃Les Budgets de la France depuis le
commencement du XIXe siècle。〃 In 1816； the four direct contributions
returned； in principal； 249 millions； and； in additional centimes； 89
millions only。 For a long time the additional centimes applied to the
local service and voted by the department or by the commune are not
many and do not exceed 5 ％。 of the principal。 by competent
functionaries； employed and superintended； who at first through fear
are compelled to be prudent； and then through habit and honor have
become honest accountants； there is no waste； no underhand stealing；
no arbitrary charges； no sum is turned aside between receipts and
expenses to disappear and be lost on the road； or flow out of its
channel in another direction。 The sensitive taxpayer； large or small；
no longer smarts under the painful goad which formerly pricked him and
made him jump。 Local taxation； annexed to the general tax； is found to
be reformed； lightened； and duly proportioned。 Like the principal； the
〃additional centimes〃 are an equitable charge； graduated according to
the sum of net revenue； like the principal； they are assessed
according to the assumed sum of this net revenue by the councils of
the arondissements among the communes； and by the communal assessors
among the inhabitants。 They are collected by the same collector； with
the same formalities； and every taxpayer who thinks himself taxed too
heavily finds a court of appeal in the council of the prefecture；
before which he can make his claim and obtain the release or reduction
of his quota。 … Thus no crying iniquity exists； nor keen suffering； on
the other hand； there are the infinite conveniences and daily
enjoyment of possessions； the privation of which； to the modern man；
is equal to the lack of fresh； pure air； physical security and
protection against contagion； facilities for circulation and
transport； pavements； light； the salubrity of healthy streets purged
of their filth； and the presence and vigilance of the municipal and
rural police。 All these benefits； the objects of local society； are
due to the machine which works with little cost； without breaking down
or stopping for any long time； as lately under the Republic； and
without any extortion and clashing； as in the times of the ancient
Régime。 It works by itself； almost without the help of the parties
interested； and which； in their eyes； is not its least merit； with it；
there is no bother； no responsibility； no elections to attend to； no
discussions to maintain； no resolutions to pass。 There is only one
bill to be settled； not even a specified bill； but a surplus of
centimes added to each franc； and included with the principal in the
annual quota。 Just like an owner who； by his correct； exact； and
somewhat slow although punctual and capable supervisors； are relieved
of the care of his property。 He may dismiss the head steward of his
domain in a fit of ill…humor； but； if he changes his stewards； he does
not change the system； he is too accustomed to it； and his indolence
demands it； he is not tempted to take care and trouble on himself； nor
is he qualified to become his own intendant。
And what is worse； in the present case the master has forgotten that
he is the owner of his domain； he hardly remembers that he is a
personality。 Whether large or small； department or commune； local
society has no longer the consciousness of being a natural body；
composed of involuntarily united members with common interests； this
sentiment； already weakened and drooping at the end of the ancient
régime； lost under the multiplied attacks of the Revolution and under
the prolonged compression of the Empire。 During twenty…five years it
has suffered too much； it has been too arbitrarily manufactured or
mutilated； too frequently recast； and made and unmade。 … In the
commune； everything has been upset over and over again； the
territorial circumscription； the internal and external system； all
collective property。 To the 44；000 municipalities improvised by the
Constituent Assembly； there succeeded under the Directory 6000 or 7000
cantonal municipalities； a sort of local syndicate； represented in
each commune by a subaltern agent； and then； under the Consulate；
36；000 distinct and permanent communes。 Sovereign at the start；
through the improvidence and abdication of the Constituent Assembly；
the communes become； in the hands of the Convention； so many timorous
subjects surrendered to the brutality of perambulating pashas and
resident agas； imposed upon them by Jacobin tyranny； then under the
Empire； a docile herd governed in a correct way from above； but
possessing no authority of their own； and therefore indifferent to
their own affairs and utterly wanting in public spirit。 Other more
serious blows affect of the them still more deeply and acutely。
Through a decree of the Legislative Assembly； in every commune where a
third of the inhabitants demand a partition of the communal property；
the commune is stripped； and its time…honored patrimony is set off in
equal lots； in portions according to families or per head； and
converted into small private holdings。 （Page 319/584）Through a decree
of the Convention； the whole of the communal fortune； its debts and
assets； are swallowed up by the public fortune and engulfed along with
that in the sale of real property； in the discredit of the assignats；
and in the final bankruptcy。 After this prolonged process； communal
property； even when disgorged and restored by the exchequer； is not
what it was before； once out of the monster's stomach； the remains of
it； dismembered； spoilt； half…digested； are no longer held sacred and
inviolable； a settlement of accounts intervenes； 〃there are a good
many communes；〃 says Napoleon＇50＇ 〃whose debts have been paid and
whose property was not sold； there are many others whose property has
been sold and whose debts are not paid 。 。 。 。 The result is that many
pieces of property in certain communes are not considered reputable。〃
Consequently； he first deprives these of one…tenth of their income
from land； and then one…quarter of the produce of their extra cuttings
of timber；＇51＇ and finally； their capital。 the whole of their real
property；＇52＇ estimated at 370 millions ； in exchange； he gives them
138 millions in the rentes； the loss to them as well as the gain to
him； is thus 232 millions； while the sale of communal properties at
auction； begun in 1813； continues under the Restoration in 1814； 1815；
and even in 1816。 A human community treated in this way for one
quarter of a century； ceases to be a personality； and becomes a mere
material object； as far as this is concerned； its members have come to
believe； that it is and must be so and cannot be otherwise。
Above the commune； nearly dead； is the department； completely dead；
here local patriotism is stamped out at the beginning by the
destruction of the provinces。 Among so many political crimes and other
outrages committed by the Revolution against France； this is one of
the worst。 The Constituent Assembly has dismantled long…established
associations； the accumulated work of ten centuries； historic and
powerful names； each of which aroused enthusiasm in thousands of
breasts and cemented together thousands of wills； centers of
spontaneous co…operation； firesides warm with generous feeling； zeal；
and devotion； a practical school of high political education； an
admirable theater for available talent； noble careers open to
legitimate ambition； in short； the small patrimony