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er Washington without a neckcloth。 His early morning swim in the Potomac and his translations of Horace did not conquer a temper which embittered many who had business with him； while the nightly records which he made of his interviews show that he was generally suspicious of his visitors。 Yet no American can show so long a roll of diplomatic successes。 Preeminently he knew his business。 His intense devotion and his native talent had made him a master of the theory and practice of international law and of statecraft。 Always he was obviously honest； and his word was relied on。 Fundamentally he was kind； and his work was permeated by a generous enthusiasm。 Probably no man in America； had so intense a conviction not only of the correctness of American principles and the promise of American greatness but of the immediate strength and greatness of the United States as it stood in 1823。
Fully aware as Adams was of the danger that threatened both America and liberty； he was not in favor of accepting Canning's proposal for the cooperation of England and the United States。 He based his opposition upon two fundamental objections。 In the first place he was not prepared to say that the United States desired no more Spanish territory。 Not that Adams desired or would tolerate conquest。 At the time of the Louisiana Purchase he had wished to postpone annexation until the assent of the people of that province could be obtained。 But he believed that all the territory necessary for the geographical completeness of the United States had not yet been brought under the flag。 He had just obtained Florida from Spain and a claim westward to the Pacific north of the forty…second parallel； but he considered the SouthwestTexas； New Mexico； and Californiaa natural field of expansion。 These areas； then almost barren of white settlers； he expected time to bring into the United States； and he also expected that the people of Cuba would ultimately rejoice to become incorporated in the Union。 He wished natural forces to work out their own results； without let or hindrance。
Not only was Adams opposed to Canning's proposed self…denying ordinance； but he was equally averse to becoming a partner with England。 Such cooperation might well prove in time to be an 〃entangling alliance；〃 involving the United States in problems of no immediate concern to its people and certainly in a partnership in which the other member would be dominant。 If Canning saw liberal England as a perpetual minority in absolutist Europe； Adams saw republican America as a perpetual inferior to monarchical England。 Although England； with Canada； the West Indies； and her commerce； was a great American power； Adams believed that the United States； the oldest independent nation in America； with a government which gave the model to the rest； could not admit her to joint； leadership； for her power was in； not of； America； and her government was monarchical。 Already Adams had won a strategic advantage over Canning； for in the previous year； 1822； the United States had recognized the new South American republics。
Great as were the dangers involved in cooperation with England； however； they seemed to many persons of little moment compared with the menace of absolutist armies and navies in the New World or of； perhaps； a French Cuba and a Russian Mexico。 The only effective obstacle to such foreign intervention was the British Navy。 Both President Monroe and Thomas Jefferson； who in his retirement was still consulted on all matters of high moment； therefore favored the acceptance of Canning's proposal as a means of detaching England from the rest of Europe。 Adams argued； however； that England was already detached； that； for England's purposes； the British Navy would still stand between Europe and America； whatever the attitude of the United States； that compromise or concession was unnecessary； and that the country could as safely take its stand toward the whole outside world as toward continental Europe alone。 To reject the offer of a country whose assistance was absolutely necessary to the safety of the United States； and to declare the American case against her as well as against the more menacing forces whose attack she alone could prevent； required a nerve and poise which could come only from ignorant foolhardiness or from absolute knowledge of the facts。 The self…assurance of Adams was well founded； and no general on the field of battle ever exhibited higher courage。
Adams won over the Cabinet； and the President decided to incorporate in his annual message to Congress a declaration setting forth the attitude of the United States toward all the world； and in particular denying the right of any European power； England included； to intervene in American affairs。 In making such a statement； however； it was necessary to offer compensation in some form。 The United States was not prepared to offer Canning's self…denying ordinance barring the way to further American expansion； but something it must offer。 This compensating offset Adams found in the separation of the New World from the Old and in abstention from interference in Europe。 Such a renunciation involved； however； the sacrifice of generous American sympathies with the republicans across the seas。 Monroe； Gallatin； and many other statesmen wished as active a policy in support of the Greeks as of the Spanish Americans。 Adams insisted； however； that the United States should create a sphere for its interests and should confine itself to that sphere。 His plan for peace provided that European and American interests should not only not clash but should not even meet。
The President's message of December 2； 1823； amounted to a rejection of the Holy Alliance as guardian of the world's peace； of Canning's request for an entente； and of the proposal that the United States enter upon a campaign to republicanize the world。 It stated the intention of the Government to refrain from interference in Europe； and its belief that it was 〃impossible that the allied powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent ＇of America＇ without endangering our peace and happiness。〃 The message contained a strong defense of the republican system of government and of the right of nations to control their own internal development。 It completed the foreign policy of the United States by declaring； in connection with certain recent encroachments of Russia along the northwest coast； that the era of colonization in the Americas was over。 The United States was to maintain in the future that boundaries between nations holding land in America actually existed and could be traceda position which invited arbitration in place of force。
Both Canning and Adams won victories； but neither realized his full hopes。 Canning prevented the interference of Europe in Spanish America； broke up the Quadruple Alliance； rendered the Holy Alliance a shadow； and restored a balance of power that meant safety for England for almost a hundred years； but he failed to dictate American policy。 Adams on his part detached the United States from European politics without throwing England into the arms of Europe。 He took advantage of the divisions of the Old World to establish the priority of the United States in American affairs； but he failed in his later attempt to unite all the Americas in cordial cooperation。 Earnest as was his desire and hard as he strove in 1825 when he had become President with Clay as his Secretary of State； Adams found that the differences in point of view between the United States and the other American powers were too great to permit a Pan…American policy。 The Panama Congress on which he built his hopes failed； and for fifty years the project lay dormant。
Under the popular name of the Monroe Doctrine； however； Adams's policy has played a much larger part in world affairs than he expected。 Without the force of law either in this country or between nations； this doctrine took a firm hold of the American imagination and became a national ideal； while other nations have at least in form taken cognizance of it。 The Monroe Doctrine has survived because Adams did not invent its main tenets but found them the dominating principles of American international politics； his work； like that of his contemporary John Marshall； was one of codification。 But not all those who have commented on the work of Adams have possessed his analytical mind； and many have confused what was fundamental in his pronouncement with what was temporary and demanded by the emergency of the time。
Always the American people have stood； from the first days of their migration to America； for the right of the people of a territory to determine their own development。 First they have insisted that their own right to work out their political destiny be acknowledged and made safe。 For this they fought the Revolution。 It has followed that they have in foreign affairs tried to keep their hands free from entanglements with other countries and have refrained from interference with foreign politics。 This was the burden of Washington's 〃Farewell Address；〃 and it was a message which Jefferson reiterated in his inaugural。 These are the permanent principles which have controlled enlightened American state