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To prevent European intervention for the purpose of securing just claims in America； then； the United States would undertake to handle the case； and would wield the 〃Big Stick〃 against any American state which should refuse to meet its obligations。 This was a repetition； in a different tone； of Blaine's 〃Elder Sister〃 program。 As developed； it had elements also of Cleveland's Venezuela policy。 In 1907 the United States submitted to the Hague Conference a modified form of the Drago doctrine； which stated that the use of force to collect contract debts claimed from one government by another as being due to its citizens should be regarded as illegal； unless the creditor nation first offered to submit its claims to arbitration and this offer were refused by the nation against which the claim was directed。 The interference of the United States； therefore； would be practically to hale the debtor into court。
Around the Caribbean； however； were several nations not only unwilling but unable to pay their debts。 This inability was not due to the fact that national resources were lacking； but that constant revolution scared away conservative capital from seeking constructive investment or from developing their natural riches； while speculators loaned money at ruinous rates of discount to tottering presidents； gambling on the possibility of some turn in fortune that would return them tenfold。 The worst example of an insolvent and recalcitrant state was the Dominican Republic； whose superb harbors were a constant temptation to ambitious powers willing to assume its debts in return for naval stations； and whose unscrupulous rulers could nearly always be bribed to sell their country as readily as anything else。 In the case of this country President Roosevelt made a still further extension of the Monroe Doctrine when； in 1905； he concluded a treaty whereby the United States agreed to undertake the adjustment of the republic's obligations and the administration of its custom houses； and at the same time guarantee the territorial integrity of the republic。 This arrangement was hotly attacked in the United States as an indication of growing imperialism； and； though it was defended as necessary to prevent the entrance of new foreign influences into the Caribbean； the opposition was so strong that the treaty was not accepted by the Senate until 1907； and then only in a modified form with the omission of the territorial guarantee。
For the United States thus to step into a foreign country as an administrator was indeed a startling innovation。 On the other hand； the development of such a policy was a logical sequence of the Monroe Doctrine。 That it was a step in the general development of policy on the part of the United States and not a random leap is indicated by the manner in which it has been followed up。 In 1911 treaties with Nicaragua and Honduras somewhat similar to the Dominican protocol were negotiated by Secretary Knox but failed of ratification。 Subsequently under President Wilson's Administration； the treaty with Nicaragua was redrafted and was ratified by both parties。 Hayti； too； was in financial difficulties and； at about the time of the outbreak of the Great War； it was reported that Germany was about to relieve her needs at the price of harbors and of control。 In 1915； however； the United States took the island under its protection by a treaty which not only gave the Government complete control of the fiscal administration but bound it to 〃lend an efficient aid for the preservation of Haitian independence and the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life； property； and individual liberty。〃
Since 1898； then； the map of the Caribbean has completely changed its aspect。 The sea is not an American lake； nor do the Americans wish it to be such。 In time； as the surrounding countries become better able to stand alone； direct interference on the part of the United States will doubtless become less than it is today。 There is； however； practically no present opportunity for a non…American power to establish itself and to threaten the commerce or the canal of the United States。
Few people in the United States and perhaps fewer in the countries involved realize from what American influence has saved these small states。 A glance at Africa and Asia will suggest what would otherwise have been the case。 Without the United States and its leadership； there can be little doubt that giant semi…sovereign corporations owing allegiance to some great power would now possess these countries。 They would bristle with forts and police； and their populations would be in a state of absolute political and of quasi…economic servitude。 They might today be more orderly and perhaps wealthier； but unless the fundamental American belief in democracy and self…government is wrong they would be infinitely farther from their true goal； which involves the working out of their own civilization。
The Caribbean is but a portion of the whole international problem of the Americas； and the methods used by the United States in solving its problems seemed likely to postpone that sympathetic union of the whole to which it has been looking forward for a century。 Yet this country has not been unappreciative of the larger aspects of Pan…Americanism。 In 1899 President McKinley revived Blaine's project and proposed a Pan…American congress。 To popularize this idea； a Pan…American Exposition was arranged at Buffalo in 1901。 Here； just after he had expounded his views of the ties that might bind the continents together； McKinley was assassinated。 The idea； however； lived and in the same year a congress was held at the City of Mexico； where it was proposed that such meetings be held regularly。 As a result； congresses were held at Rio de Janeiro in 1906 and at Buenos Aires in 1910； at which various measures of common utility were discussed and a number of projects were actually undertaken。
The movement of Pan…Americanism has missed achieving the full hopes of its supporters owing not so much to a difference of fundamental ideas and interests as to suspicion and national pride。 The chief powers of southern South AmericaArgentina； Brazil； and Chilihad by the end of the nineteenth century in large measure successfully worked out their own problems。 They resented the interference of a power of alien race such as the United States； and they suspected its good intentions in wielding the 〃Big Stick；〃 especially after the cavalier treatment which Colombia had received。 They observed with alarm the strengthening of the grip of the United States about the Caribbean。 United in a group； known from their initials as the 〃A。B。C。〃 powers； they sought to assume the leadership of Latin America； basing their action； indeed； upon the fundamentals of the Monroe Doctrinethe exclusion of foreign influence and the independence of peoples but with themselves instead of the United States as chief； guardians。
Many of the publicists of these three powers； however； doubted their capacity to walk entirely alone。 On the one hand they noted the growing influence of the Germans in Brazil and the indications of Japanese interest in many places； and on the other they divined the fundamental sincerity of the professions of the United States and were anxious to cooperate with this nation。 Not strong enough to control the policy of the various countries； these men at least countered those chauvinists who urged that hostility to the United States was a first duty compared with which the danger of non…American interference might be neglected。
Confronted by this divided attitude； the United States sought to win over but not to compel。 Nothing more completely met American views than that each power should maintain for itself the principles of the Monroe Doctrine by excluding foreign influences。 Beyond that the United States sought only friendship； and； if it were agreeable； such unity as should be mutually advantageous。 In 1906 Elihu Root； the Secretary of State； made a tour of South America with a view of expressing these sentiments； and in 1913…1914 ex…President Roosevelt took occasion； on the way to his Brazilian hunting trip； to assure the people of the great South American powers that the 〃Big Stick〃 was not intended to intimidate them。 Pan…American unity was still； when President Taft went out of office in 1913； an aspiration rather than a realized fact； though the tangible evidences of unity had vastly multiplied since 1898； and the recurring congresses provided a basis of organization upon which some substantial structure might be built。
The United States had sincerely hoped that Mexico； like the 〃A。B。C。〃 powers； was another Latin American power which had found itself。 Of all it was certainly the most friendly and the most intimate。 The closeness of its relations with the United States is indicated by the fact that in the forty years between 1868 and 1908； forty agreements； treaties； and conventions had been concluded between the two countries。 Nor was intimacy confined to the Governments。 The peace arranged by President Diaz had brought foreign capital by the billion to aid the internal development of the country； and of this money more had come from the United States than from any other n