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is short term prevented him from carrying out his policy； but it is nevertheless of interest as anticipating the plan actually followed by President Roosevelt in the case of Santo Domingo。
Blaine was just as much opposed to the peaceful penetration of European influence in the Western Hemisphere as to its forceful expression。 The project of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama； to be built and owned by a French company； had already aroused President Hayes on March 8； 1880； to remark： 〃The policy of this country is a canal under American control。 The United States cannot consent to the surrender of this control to any European power or to any combination of European powers。〃 Blaine added that the passage of hostile troops through such a canal when either the United States or Colombia was at war； as the terms of guarantee of the new canal allowed； was 〃no more admissible than on the railroad lines joining the Atlantic and Pacific shores of the United States。〃
It is characteristic of Blaine that； when he wrote this dispatch； he was apparently in complete ignorance of the existence of the Clayton…Bulwer Treaty； in which the United States accepted the exactly opposite principleshad agreed to a canal under a joint international guarantee and open to the use of all in time of war as well as of peace。 Discovering this obstacle； he set to work to demolish it by announcing to Great Britain that the treaty was antiquated； thirty years old； that the development of the American Pacific slope had changed conditions； and that； should the treaty be observed and such a canal remain unfortified； the superiority of the British fleet would give the nation complete control。 Great Britain； however； could scarcely be expected to regard a treaty as defunct from old age at thirty years； especially as she also possessed a developing Pacific coast。 Moreover； if the treaty was to British advantage； at least the United States had accepted it。 Great Britain； therefore； refused to admit that the treaty was not in full force。 Blaine then urged the building of an American canal across the Isthmus of Nicaragua； in defiance of the Clayton…Bulwer Treatya plan which received the support of even President Arthur； under whom a treaty for the purpose was negotiated with the Republic of Nicaragua。 Before this treaty was ratified by the Senate； however； Grover Cleveland； who had just become President； withdrew it。 He believed in the older policy； and refused his sanction to the new treaty on the ground that such a canal 〃must be for the world's benefit； a trust for mankind； to be removed from the chance of domination by any single power。〃
The crowning glory of Blaine's system； as he planned it； was the cooperation of the American republics for common purposes。 He did not share Seward's dream that they would become incorporated States of the Union； but he went back to Henry Clay and the Panama Congress of 1826 for his ideal。 During his first term of office he invited the republics to send representatives to Washington to discuss arbitration； but his successor in office feared that such a meeting of 〃a partial group of our friends〃 might offend Europe； which indeed was not improbably part of Blaine's intention。 On resuming office； Blaine finally arranged the meeting of a Pan…American Congress in the United States。 Chosen to preside； he presented an elaborate program； including a plan for arbitrating disputes； commercial reciprocity； the establishment of uniform weights and measures； of international copyright； trade…marks and patents； and； of common coinage； improvement of communications； and other subjects。 At the same time he exerted himself to secure in the McKinley Tariff Bill； which was just then under consideration； a provision for reciprocity of trade with American countries。 This meeting was not a complete success； since Congress gave him only half of what he wanted by providing for reciprocity but making it general instead of purely American。 Nevertheless one permanent and solid result was secured in the establishment of the Bureau of American Republics at Washington； which has become a clearing house of ideas and a visible bond of common interests and good feeling。
Throughout the years of Blaine's prominence； the public took more interest in his bellicose encounters with Europe； and particularly with Great Britain； than in his constructive American policy； and he failed to secure for either an assured popular support。 His attempt to widen the gulf between Europe and America was indeed absurd at a time when the cable； the railroad； and the steamship were rendering the world daily smaller and more closely knit； and when the spirit of democracy； rapidly permeating western Europe； was breaking down the distinction in political institutions which had given point to the pronouncement of 1823。 Nevertheless Blaine did actually feel the changing industrial conditions at home which were destroying American separateness； and he made a genuine attempt to find a place for the United States in the world； without the necessity of sharing the responsibilities of all the world； by making real that interest in its immediate neighbors which his country had announced in 1823。 Even while Blaine was working on his plan of 〃America for the Americans；〃 events were shaping the most important extension of the interests of the United States which had taken place since 1823。
CHAPTER V。 The United States And The Pacific
Long before the westward march of Americans had brought their flag to the Pacific； that ocean was familiar to their mariners。 》From Cape Horn to Canton and the ports of India； there ploughed the stately merchantmen of Salem； Providence； and Newburyport； exchanging furs and ginseng for teas； silks； the 〃Canton blue〃 which is today so cherished a link with the past； and for the lacquer cabinets and carved ivory which give distinction to many a New England home。 Meanwhile the sturdy whalers of New Bedford scoured the whole ocean for sperm oil and whalebone； and the incidents of their self…reliant three…year cruises acquainted them with nearly every coral and volcanic isle。 Early in the century missionaries also began to brave the languor of these oases of leisure and the appetite of their cannibalistic inhabitants。
The interest of the Government was bound to follow its adventurous citizens。 In 1820 the United States appointed a consular agent at Honolulu； in the thirties and forties it entered into treaty relations with Siam； Borneo； and China； and owing to circumstances which were by no means accidental it had the honor of persuading Japan to open her ports to the world。 As early as 1797 an American vessel chartered by the Dutch had visited Nagasaki。 From time to time American sailors had been shipwrecked on the shores of Japan； and the United States had more than once picked up and sought to return Japanese castaways。 In 1846 an official expedition under Commodore Biddle was sent to establish relationships with Japan but was unsuccessful。 In 1853 Commodore Perry bore a message from the President to the Mikado which demandedthough the demand was couched in courteous language〃friendship； commerce； a supply of coal and provisions； and protection for our shipwrecked people。〃 After a long hesitation the Mikado yielded。 Commodore Perry's success was due not solely to the care with which his expedition was equipped for its purpose nor to his diplomatic skill but in part to the fact that other countries were known to be on the very point of forcing an entrance into the seclusion of Japan。 Few Americans realize how close； indeed； were the relations established with Japan by the United States。 The treaty which Townsend Harris negotiated in 1858 stated that 〃The President of the United States； at the request of the Japanese Government； will act as a friendly mediator in such matters of difference as may arise between the Government of Japan and any European power。〃 Through his personal efforts Harris may almost be said to have become the chief adviser of the Japanese Government in the perplexities which it encountered on entering international society。
Not only did the United States allow itself a closer intimacy with this new Pacific power than it would have done with a state of Europe； but it exhibited a greater freedom in dealing with the European powers themselves in the Far East than at home or in America。 In 1863 the United States joinedin fact； in the absence of a naval force it strained a point by chartering a vessel for the purposewith a concert of powers to force the opening of the Shimonoseki Straits； subsequently acting with Great Britain； France； and the Netherlands； the United States secured an indemnity to pay the cost of the expedition； and in 1866 it united with the same powers to secure a convention by which Japan bound herself to establish certain tariff regulations。
Nor were the relations of the United States with the Pacific Ocean and its shores confined to trade and international obligations。 The American flag waved over more than ships and a portion of the Pacific coast。 Naval officers more than once raised it over islands which they christened； and Congress authorized the President to exercise temporary authority over islands from which Ameri