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reover； is not exempt from the suspicion of covetousness； yet he was unable； in his own fortress of Kyberg； to protect some hundreds of Jews； who had been received there； from being barbarously burnt by the inhabitants。 Several other princes and counts； among whom was Ruprecht von der Pfalz； took the Jews under their protection； on the payment of large sums： in consequence of which they were called 〃Jew…masters；〃 and were in danger of being attacked by the populace and by their powerful neighbours。 These persecuted and ill…used people； except indeed where humane individuals took compassion on them at their own peril； or when they could command riches to purchase protection； had no place of refuge left but the distant country of Lithuania； where Boleslav V。； Duke of Poland （1227…1279） had before granted them liberty of conscience； and King Casimir the Great （1333…1370）； yielding to the entreaties of Esther； a favourite Jewess； received them； and granted them further protection； on which account； that country is still inhabited by a great number of Jews； who by their secluded habits have； more than any people in Europe； retained the manners of the Middle Ages。
But to return to the fearful accusations against the Jews； it was reported in all Europe that they were in connection with secret superiors in Toledo； to whose decrees they were subject； and from whom they had received commands respecting the coining of base money； poisoning； the murder of Christian children； &c； that they received the poison by sea from remote parts； and also prepared it themselves from spiders； owls； and other venomous animals； but； in order that their secret might not be discovered； that it was known only to their Rabbis and rich men。 Apparently there were but few who did not consider this extravagant accusation well founded； indeed； in many writings of the fourteenth century； we find great acrimony with regard to the suspected poison…mixers； which plainly demonstrates the prejudice existing against them。 Unhappily； after the confessions of the first victims in Switzerland； the rack extorted similar ones in various places。 Some even acknowledged having received poisonous powder in bags； and injunctions from Toledo； by secret messengers。 Bags of this description were also often found in wells； though it was not unfrequently discovered that the Christians themselves had thrown them in； probably to give occasion to murder and pillage； similar instances of which may be found in the persecutions of the witches。
This picture needs no additions。 A lively image of the Black Plague； and of the moral evil which followed in its train； will vividly represent itself to him who is acquainted with nature and the constitution of society。 Almost the only credible accounts of the manner of living； and of the ruin which occurred in private life during this pestilence； are from Italy； and these may enable us to form a just estimate of the general state of families in Europe； taking into consideration what is peculiar in the manners of each country。
〃When the evil had become universal〃 （speaking of Florence）； 〃the hearts of all the inhabitants were closed to feelings of humanity。 They fled from the sick and all that belonged to them； hoping by these means to save themselves。 Others shut themselves up in their houses； with their wives； their children and households； living on the most costly food； but carefully avoiding all excess。 None were allowed access to them； no intelligence of death or sickness was permitted to reach their ears； and they spent their time in singing and music； and other pastimes。 Others； on the contrary； considered eating and drinking to excess； amusements of all descriptions； the indulgence of every gratification； and an indifference to what was passing around them； as the best medicine； and acted accordingly。 They wandered day and night from one tavern to another； and feasted without moderation or bounds。 In this way they endeavoured to avoid all contact with the sick； and abandoned their houses and property to chance； like men whose death…knell had already tolled。
〃Amid this general lamentation and woe； the influence and authority of every law； human and divine； vanished。 Most of those who were in office had been carried off by the plague； or lay sick； or had lost so many members of their family； that they were unable to attend to their duties； so that thenceforth every one acted as he thought proper。 Others in their mode of living chose a middle course。 They ate and drank what they pleased； and walked abroad； carrying odoriferous flowers； herbs； or spices； which they smelt to from time to time； in order to invigorate the brain； and to avert the baneful influence of the air； infected by the sick and by the innumerable corpses of those who had died of the plague。 Others carried their precaution still further； and thought the surest way to escape death was by flight。 They therefore left the city； women as well as men abandoning their dwellings and their relations； and retiring into the country。 But of these also many were carried off； most of them alone and deserted by all the world； themselves having previously set the example。 Thus it was that one citizen fled from anothera neighbour from his neighboursa relation from his relations； and in the end； so completely had terror extinguished every kindlier feeling； that the brother forsook the brotherthe sister the sisterthe wife her husband； and at last； even the parent his own offspring； and abandoned them； unvisited and unsoothed； to their fate。 Those； therefore； that stood in need of assistance fell a prey to greedy attendants； who； for an exorbitant recompense； merely handed the sick their food and medicine； remained with them in their last moments； and then not unfrequently became themselves victims to their avarice and lived not to enjoy their extorted gain。 Propriety and decorum were extinguished among the helpless sick。 Females of rank seemed to forget their natural bashfulness； and committed the care of their persons； indiscriminately； to men and women of the lowest order。 No longer were women； relatives or friends； found in the house of mourning； to share the grief of the survivorsno longer was the corpse accompanied to the grave by neighbours and a numerous train of priests； carrying wax tapers and singing psalms； nor was it borne along by other citizens of equal rank。 Many breathed their last without a friend to soothe their dying pillow； and few indeed were they who departed amid the lamentations and tears of their friends and kindred。 Instead of sorrow and mourning； appeared indifference； frivolity and mirth； this being considered； especially by the females； as conducive to health。 Seldom was the body followed by even ten or twelve attendants； and instead of the usual bearers and sextons； mercenaries of the lowest of the populace undertook the office for the sake of gain； and accompanied by only a few priests； and often without a single taper； it was borne to the very nearest church； and lowered into the grave that was not already too full to receive it。 Among the middling classes； and especially among the poor； the misery was still greater。 Poverty or negligence induced most of these to remain in their dwellings； or in the immediate neighbourhood； and thus they fell by thousands； and many ended their lives in the streets by day and by night。 The stench of putrefying corpses was often the first indication to their neighbours that more deaths had occurred。 The survivors； to preserve themselves from infection； generally had the bodies taken out of the houses and laid before the doors； where the early morning found them in heaps； exposed to the affrighted gaze of the passing stranger。 It was no longer possible to have a bier for every corpsethree or four were generally laid togetherhusband and wife； father and mother； with two or three children； were frequently borne to the grave on the same bier； and it often happened that two priests would accompany a coffin； bearing the cross before it； and be joined on the way by several other funerals； so that instead of one； there were five or six bodies for interment。〃
Thus far Boccacio。 On the conduct of the priests； another contemporary observes： 〃In large and small towns they had withdrawn themselves through fear； leaving the performance of ecclesiastical duties to the few who were found courageous and faithful enough to undertake them。〃 But we ought not on that account to throw more blame on them than on others； for we find proofs of the same timidity and heartlessness in every class。 During the prevalence of the Black Plague； the charitable orders conducted themselves admirably； and did as much good as can be done by individual bodies in times of great misery and destruction； when compassion； courage； and the nobler feelings are found but in the few； while cowardice； selfishness and ill…will； with the baser passions in their train； assert the supremacy。 In place of virtue which had been driven from the earth； wickedness everywhere reared her rebellious standard； and succeeding generations were consigned to the dominion of her baleful tyranny。
CHAPTER VIPHYSICIANS
If we now turn to the medical tale