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nervous and putrid character。 The endemy originates； according to him； only in local telluric changesin deleterious influences which develop themselves in the earth and in the water； without a corruption of the air。 These notions were variously jumbled together in his time； like everything which human understanding separates by too fine a line of limitation。 The estimation of cosmical influences； however； in the epidemy and pestilence； is well worthy of commendation； and Santa Sofia； in this respect； not only agrees with the most intelligent persons of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries； but he has also promulgated an opinion which must； even now； serve as a foundation for our scarcely commenced investigations into cosmical influences。 Pestilence and epidemy consist not in alterations of the four primary qualities； but in a corruption of the air； powerful； though quite immaterial； and not cognoscible by the senses（corruptio aeris non substantialis； sed qualitativa） in a disproportion of the imponderables in the atmosphere； as it would be expressed by the moderns。 The causes of the pestilence and epidemy are； first of all； astral influences； especially on occasions of planetary conjunctions； then extensive putrefaction of animal and vegetable bodies； and terrestrial corruptions （corruptio in terra）： to which also bad diet and want may contribute。 Santa Sofia considers the putrefaction of locusts； that had perished in the sea and were again thrown up； combined with astral and terrestrial influences； as the cause of the pestilence in the eventful year of the 〃Great Mortality。〃
All the fevers which were called forth by the pestilence are； according to him； of the putrid kind； for they originate principally from putridity of the heart's blood； which inevitably follows the inhalation of infected air。 The Oriental Plague is； sometimes； but by no means always occasioned by pestilence （？）； which imparts to it a character （qualitas occulta） hostile to human nature。 It originates frequently from other causes； among which this physician was aware that contagion was to be reckoned； and it deserves to be remarked that he held epidemic small…pox and measles to be infallible forerunners of the plague； as do the physicians and people of the East at the present day。
In the exposition of his therapeutical views of the plague； a clearness of intellect is again shown by Santa Sofia； which reflects credit on the age。 It seemed to him to depend； 1st； on an evacuation of putrid matters by purgatives and bleeding； yet he did not sanction the employment of these means indiscriminately and without consideration； least of all where the condition of the blood was healthy。 He also declared himself decidedly against bleeding ad deliquium （venae sectio eradicativa）。 2nd； Strengthening of the heart and prevention of putrescence。 3rd； Appropriate regimen。 4th； Improvement of the air。 5th； Appropriate treatment of tumid glands and inflammatory boils； with emollient； or even stimulating poultices （mustard； lily…bulbs）； as well as with red…hot gold and iron。 Lastly； 6th； Attention to prominent symptoms。 The stores of the Arabian pharmacy； which he brought into action to meet all these indications； were indeed very considerable； it is to be observed； however； that； for the most part； gentle means were accumulated； which； in case of abuse； would do no harm： for the character of the Arabian system of medicine； whose principles were everywhere followed at this time； was mildness and caution。 On this account； too； we cannot believe that a very prolix treatise by Marsigli di Santa Sofia； a contemporary relative of Galeazzo； on the prevention and treatment of plague； can have caused much harm； although perhaps； even in the fourteenth century； an agreeable latitude and confident assertions respecting things which no mortal has investigated； or which it is quite a matter of indifference to distinguish； were considered as proofs of a valuable practical talent。
The agreement of contemporary and later writers shows that the published views of the most celebrated physicians of the fourteenth century were those generally adopted。 Among these； Chalin de Vinario is the most experienced。 Though devoted to astrology still more than his distinguished contemporary； he acknowledges the great power of terrestrial influences； and expresses himself very sensibly on the indisputable doctrine of contagion； endeavouring thereby to apologise for many surgeons and physicians of his time who neglected their duty。 He asserted boldly and with truth； 〃that all epidemic diseases might become contagious； and all fevers epidemic；〃 which attentive observers of all subsequent ages have confirmed。
He delivered his sentiments on blood…letting with sagacity； as an experienced physician； yet he was unable； as may be imagined； to moderate the desire for bleeding shown by the ignorant monks。 He was averse to draw blood from the veins of patients under fourteen years of age； but counteracted inflammatory excitement in them by cupping； and endeavoured to moderate the inflammation of the tumid glands by leeches。 Most of those who were bled； died； he therefore reserved this remedy for the plethoric； especially for the papal courtiers and the hypocritical priests； whom he saw gratifying their sensual desires； and imitating Epicurus； whilst they pompously pretended to follow Christ。 He recommended burning the boils with a red…hot iron only in the plague without fever； which occurred in single cases； and was always ready to correct those over…hasty surgeons who； with fire and violent remedies； did irremediable injury to their patients。 Michael Savonarola； professor in Ferrara （1462）； reasoning on the susceptibility of the human frame to the influence of pestilential infection； as the cause of such various modifications of disease； expresses himself as a modern physician would on this point； and an adoption of the principle of contagion was the foundation of his definition of the plague。 No less worthy of observation are the views of the celebrated Valescus of Taranta； who； during the final visitation of the Black Death； in 1382； practised as a physician at Montpellier； and handed down to posterity what has been repeated in innumerable treatises on plague； which were written during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries。
Of all these notions and views regarding the plague； whose development we have represented； there are two especially； which are prominent in historical importance：… 1st； The opinion of learned physicians； that the pestilence； or epidemic constitution； is the parent of various kinds of disease； that the plague sometimes； indeed； but by no means always； originates from it： that； to speak in the language of the moderns； the pestilence bears the same relation to contagion that a predisposing cause does to an occasional cause； and 2ndly； the universal conviction of the contagious power of that disease。
Contagion gradually attracted more notice： it was thought that in it the most powerful occasional cause might be avoided； the possibility of protecting whole cities by separation became gradually more evident； and so horrifying was the recollection of the eventful year of the 〃Great Mortality；〃 that before the close of the fourteenth century； ere the ill effects of the Black Plague had ceased； nations endeavoured to guard against the return of this enemy by an earnest and effectual defence。
The first regulation which was issued for this purpose； originated with Viscount Bernabo； and is dated the 17th January； 1374。 〃Every plague…patient was to be taken out of the city into the fields； there to die or to recover。 Those who attended upon a plague…patient； were to remain apart for ten days before they again associated with anybody。 The priests were to examine the diseased； and point out to special commissioners the persons infected； under punishment of the confiscation of their goods and of being burned alive。 Whoever imported the plague； the state condemned his goods to confiscation。 Finally； none except those who were appointed for that purpose were to attend plague… patients； under penalty of death and confiscation。
These orders； in correspondence with the spirit of the fourteenth century； are sufficiently decided to indicate a recollection of the good effects of confinement； and of keeping at a distance those suspected of having plague。 It was said that Milan itself； by a rigorous barricade of three houses in which the plague had broken out； maintained itself free from the 〃Great Mortality〃 for a considerable time； and examples of the preservation of individual families； by means of a strict separation； were certainly very frequent。 That these orders must have caused universal affliction from their uncommon severity； as we know to have been especially the case in the city of Reggio； may be easily conceived； but Bernabo did not suffer himself to be deterred from his purpose by fearon the contrary； when the plague returned in the year 1383； he forbade the admission of people from infected places into his territories on pain of death。 We have now； it is true； no account how far he succeeded； yet it is to be supposed that he arrested the disease； for it had