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etics were burned alive。 Gentle rulers were contemned as weak； wild passions； severity and cruelty； everywhere predominated。 Human life was little regarded。 Governments concerned not themselves about the numbers of their subjects； for whose welfare it was incumbent on them to provide。 Thus； the first requisite for estimating the loss of human life； namely； a knowledge of the amount of the population； is altogether wanting； and； moreover； the traditional statements of the amount of this loss are so vague； that from this source likewise there is only room for probable conjecture。
Cairo lost daily； when the plague was raging with its greatest violence； from 10；000 to 15；000； being as many as； in modern times； great plagues have carried off during their whole course。 In China； more than thirteen millions are said to have died； and this is in correspondence with the certainly exaggerated accounts from the rest of Asia。 India was depopulated。 Tartary； the Tartar kingdom of Kaptschak； Mesopotamia； Syria； Armenia； were covered with dead bodiesthe Kurds fled in vain to the mountains。 In Caramania and Caesarea none were left alive。 On the roadsin the campsin the caravansariesunburied bodies alone were seen； and a few cities only （Arabian historians name Maarael…Nooman； Schisur； and Harem） remained； in an unaccountable manner； free。 In Aleppo； 500 died daily； 22；000 people； and most of the animals； were carried off in Gaza； within six weeks。 Cyprus lost almost all its inhabitants； and ships without crews were often seen in the Mediterranean； as afterwards in the North Sea； driving about； and spreading the plague wherever they went on shore。 It was reported to Pope Clement； at Avignon； that throughout the East； probably with the exception of China； 23；840；000 people had fallen victims to the plague。 Considering the occurrences of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries； we might； on first view； suspect the accuracy of this statement。 How （it might be asked） could such great wars have been carried onsuch powerful efforts have been made； how could the Greek Empire； only a hundred years later； have been overthrown； if the people really had been so utterly destroyed？
This account is nevertheless rendered credible by the ascertained fact； that the palaces of princes are less accessible to contagious diseases than the dwellings of the multitude； and that in places of importance； the influx from those districts which have suffered least； soon repairs even the heaviest losses。 We must remember； also； that we do not gather much from mere numbers without an intimate knowledge of the state of society。 We will therefore confine ourselves to exhibiting some of the more credible accounts relative to European cities。
In Florence there died of the Black Plague60；000 In Venice100；000 In Marseilles； in one month16；000 In Siena70；000 In Paris50；000 In St。 Denys14；000 In Avignon60；000 In Strasburg16；000 In Lubeck9；000 In Basle14；000 In Erfurt； at least16；000 In Weimar5；000 In Limburg2；500 In London； at least100；000 In Norwich51；100
To which may be added …
Franciscan Friars in German124；434 Minorites in Italy30；000
This short catalogue might； by a laborious and uncertain calculation； deduced from other sources； be easily further multiplied； but would still fail to give a true picture of the depopulation which took place。 Lubeck； at that time the Venice of the North； which could no longer contain the multitudes that flocked to it； was thrown into such consternation on the eruption of the plague； that the citizens destroyed themselves as if in frenzy。
Merchants whose earnings and possessions were unbounded； coldly and willingly renounced their earthly goods。 They carried their treasures to monasteries and churches； and laid them at the foot of the altar； but gold had no charms for the monks； for it brought them death。 They shut their gates； yet； still it was cast to them over the convent walls。 People would brook no impediment to the last pious work to which they were driven by despair。 When the plague ceased； men thought they were still wandering among the dead； so appalling was the livid aspect of the survivors； in consequence of the anxiety they had undergone； and the unavoidable infection of the air。 Many other cities probably presented a similar appearance； and it is ascertained that a great number of small country towns and villages； which have been estimated； and not too highly； at 200；000； were bereft of all their inhabitants。
In many places in France； not more than two out of twenty of the inhabitants were left alive； and the capital felt the fury of the plague； alike in the palace and the cot。
Two queens； one bishop； and great numbers of other distinguished persons； fell a sacrifice to it； and more than 500 a day died in the Hotel Dieu； under the faithful care of the sisters of charity； whose disinterested courage； in this age of horror； displayed the most beautiful traits of human virtue。 For although they lost their lives； evidently from contagion； and their numbers were several times renewed； there was still no want of fresh candidates； who； strangers to the unchristian fear of death； piously devoted themselves to their holy calling。
The churchyards were soon unable to contain the dead； and many houses； left without inhabitants； fell to ruins。
In Avignon； the Pope found it necessary to consecrate the Rhone； that bodies might be thrown into the river without delay； as the churchyards would no longer hold them； so likewise； in all populous cities； extraordinary measures were adopted； in order speedily to dispose of the dead。 In Vienna； where for some time 1；200 inhabitants died daily； the interment of corpses in the churchyards and within the churches was forthwith prohibited； and the dead were then arranged in layers； by thousands； in six large pits outside the city； as had already been done in Cairo and Paris。 Yet； still many were secretly buried； for at all times the people are attached to the consecrated cemeteries of their dead； and will not renounce the customary mode of interment。
In many places it was rumoured that plague patients were buried alive； as may sometimes happen through senseless alarm and indecent haste； and thus the horror of the distressed people was everywhere increased。 In Erfurt； after the churchyards were filled； 12；000 corpses were thrown into eleven great pits； and the like might； more or less exactly； be stated with respect to all the larger cities。 Funeral ceremonies； the last consolation of the survivors； were everywhere impracticable。
In all Germany； according to a probable calculation； there seem to have died only 1；244；434 inhabitants； this country； however； was more spared than others： Italy； on the contrary； was most severely visited。 It is said to have lost half its inhabitants； and this account is rendered credible from the immense losses of individual cities and provinces： for in Sardinia and Corsica； according to the account of the distinguished Florentine； John Villani； who was himself carried off by the Black Plague； scarcely a third part of the population remained alive； and it is related of the Venetians； that they engaged ships at a high rate to retreat to the islands； so that after the plague had carried off three…fourths of her inhabitants； that proud city was left forlorn and desolate。 In Padua； after the cessation of the plague； two… thirds of the inhabitants were wanting； and in Florence it was prohibited to publish the numbers of dead； and to toll the bells at their funerals； in order that the living might not abandon themselves to despair。
We have more exact accounts of England； most of the great cities suffered incredible losses； above all； Yarmouth； in which 7；052 died； Bristol； Oxford； Norwich； Leicester； York； and London； where in one burial ground alone； there were interred upwards of 50；000 corpses； arranged in layers； in large pits。 It is said that in the whole country scarcely a tenth part remained alive； but this estimate is evidently too high。 Smaller losses were sufficient to cause those convulsions； whose consequences were felt for some centuries； in a false impulse given to civil life； and whose indirect influence； unknown to the English； has perhaps extended even to modern times。
Morals were deteriorated everywhere； and the service of God was in a great measure laid aside； for； in many places； the churches were deserted； being bereft of their priests。 The instruction of the people was impeded； covetousness became general； and when tranquillity was restored； the great increase of lawyers was astonishing； to whom the endless disputes regarding inheritances offered a rich harvest。 The want of priests too； throughout the country； operated very detrimentally upon the people （the lower classes being most exposed to the ravages of the plague； whilst the houses of the nobility were； in proportion； much more spared）； and it was no compensation that whole bands of ignorant laymen； who had lost their wives during the pestilence； crowded into the monastic orders； that they might participate in the respectability of the priesthood； and in the rich heritages which fell in to the Church from all quarters。 The sittings of Parliam