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thoughts on man-第33章

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er adherents of this doctrine maintain; that mankind are in all cases guided by views of the narrowest self…interest; and that those who advance the highest claims to philanthropy; patriotism; generosity and self…sacrifice; are all the time deceiving others; or deceiving themselves; and use a plausible and high…sounding language merely; that serves no other purpose than to veil from observation 〃that hideous sight; a naked human heart。〃

The more delicate and fastidious supporters of the doctrine of universal self…love; take a different ground。  They affirm that 〃such persons as talk to us of disinterestedness and pure benevolence; have not considered with sufficient accuracy the nature of mind; feeling and will。  To understand;〃 they say; 〃is one thing; and to choose another。  The clearest proposition that ever was stated; has; in itself; no tendency to produce voluntary action on the part of the percipient。  It can be only something apprehended as agreeable or disagreeable to us; that can operate so as to determine the will。  Such is the law of universal nature。  We act from the impulse of our own desires and aversions; and we seek to effect or avert a thing; merely because it is viewed by us as an object of gratification or the contrary。

The virtuous man and the vicious are alike governed by the same principle; and it is therefore the proper business of a wise instructor of youth; and of a man who would bring his own sentiments and feelings into the most praise…worthy frame; to teach us to find our interest and gratification in that which shall be most beneficial to others。〃

When we proceed to examine the truth of these statements; it certainly is not strictly an argument to say; that the advocate of self…love on either of these hypotheses cannot consistently be a believer in Christianity; or even a theist; as theism is ordinarily understood。  The commandments of the author of the Christian religion are; as we have seen; purely disinterested:  and; especially if we admit the latter of the two explanations of self…love; we shall be obliged to confess; on the hypothesis of this new philosophy; that the almighty author of the universe never acts in any of his designs either of creation or providence; but from a principle of self…love。  In the mean time; if this is not strictly an argument; it is however but fair to warn the adherents of the doctrine I oppose; of the consequences to which their theory leads。  It is my purpose to subvert that doctrine by means of the severest demonstration; but I am not unwilling; before I begin; to conciliate; as far as may be; the good…will of my readers to the propositions I proceed to establish。

I will therefore further venture to add; that; upon the hypothesis of self…love; there can be no such thing as virtue。  There are two circumstances required; to entitle an action to be denominated virtuous。  It must have a tendency to produce good rather than evil to the race of man; and it must have been generated by an intention to produce such good。  The most beneficent action that ever was performed; if it did not spring from the intention of good to others; is not of the nature of virtue。  Virtue; where it exists in any eminence; is a species of conduct; modelled upon a true estimate of the good intended to be produced。  He that makes a false estimate; and prefers a trivial and partial good to an important and comprehensive one; is vicious'20'。

'20' Political Justice; Book 11; Chap。 IV。


It is admitted on all hands; that it is possible for a man to sacrifice his own existence to that of twenty others。  But the advocates of the doctrine of self…love must say; that he does this that he may escape from uneasiness; and because he could not bear to encounter the inward upbraiding with which he would be visited; if he acted otherwise。  This in reality would change his action from an act of virtue to an act of vice。  So far as belongs to the real merits of the case; his own advantage or pleasure is a very insignificant consideration; and the benefit to be produced; suppose to a world; is inestimable。  Yet he falsely and unjustly prefers the first; and views the latter as trivial; nay; separately taken; as not entitled to the smallest regard。  If the dictates of impartial justice be taken into the account; then; according to the system of self…love; the best action that ever was performed; may; for any thing we know; have been the action; in the whole world; of the most exquisite and deliberate injustice。  Nay; it could not have been otherwise; since it produced the greatest good; and therefore was the individual instance; in which the greatest good was most directly postponed to personal gratification'21'。  Such is the spirit of the doctrine I undertake to refute。

'21' Political Justice; Book IV; Chap。 X。


But man is not in truth so poor and pusillanimous a creature as this system would represent。

It is time however to proceed to the real merits of the question; to examine what in fact is the motive which induces a good man to elect a generous mode of proceeding。

Locke is the philosopher; who; in writing on Human Understanding; has specially delivered the doctrine; that uneasiness is the cause which determines the will; and urges us to act。  He says'22'; 〃The motive we have for continuing in the same state; is only the present satisfaction we feel in it; the motive to change is always some uneasiness:  nothing setting us upon the change of state; or upon any new action; but some uneasiness。  This is the great motive that works on the mind。〃

'22' Book II; Chap。 XXI; Sect。 29。


It is not my concern to enquire; whether Locke by this statement meant to assert that self…love is the only principle of human action。  It has at any rate been taken to express the doctrine which I here propose to refute。

And; in the first place; I say; that; if our business is to discover the consideration entertained by the mind which induces us to act; this tells us nothing。  It is like the case of the Indian philosopher'23'; who; being asked what it was that kept the earth in its place; answered; that it was supported by an elephant; and that elephant again rested on a tortoise。  He must be endowed with a slender portion of curiosity; who; being told that uneasiness is that which spurs on the mind to act; shall rest satisfied with this explanation; and does not proceed to enquire; what makes us uneasy?

'23' Locke on Understanding; Book 11; Chap。 XIII; Sect。 19。


An explanation like this is no more instructive; than it would be; if; when we saw a man walking; or grasping a sword or a bludgeon; and we enquired into the cause of this phenomenon; any one should inform us that he walks; because he has feet; and he grasps; because he has hands。

I could not commodiously give to my thoughts their present form; unless I had been previously furnished with pens and paper。  But it would be absurd to say; that my being furnished with pens and paper; is the cause of my writing this Essay on Self…love and Benevolence。

The advocates of self…love have; very inartificially and unjustly; substituted the abstract definition of a voluntary agent; and made that stand for the motive by which he is prompted to act。  It is true; that we cannot act without the impulse of desire or uneasiness; but we do not think of that desire and uneasiness; and it is the thing upon which the mind is fixed that constitutes our motive。  In the boundless variety of the acts; passions and pursuits of human beings; it is absurd on the face of it to say that we are all governed by one motive; and that; however dissimilar are the ends we pursue; all this dissimilarity is the fruit of a single cause。

One man chooses travelling; another ambition; a third study; a fourth voluptuousness and a mistress。  Why do these men take so different courses?

Because one is partial to new scenes; new buildings; new manners; and the study of character。  Because a second is attracted by the contemplation of wealth and power。  Because a third feels a decided preference for the works of Homer; or Shakespear; or Bacon; or Euclid。  Because a fourth finds nothing calculated to stir his mind in comparison with female beauty; female allurements; or expensive living。

Each of these finds the qualities he likes; intrinsically in the thing he chooses。  One man feels himself strongly moved; and raised to extacy; by the beauties of nature; or the magnificence of architecture。  Another is ravished with the divine excellencies of Homer; or of some other of the heroes of literature。  A third finds nothing delights him so much as the happiness of others; the beholding that happiness increased; and seeing pain and oppression and sorrow put to flight。  The cause of these differences is; that each man has an individual internal structure; directing his partialities; one man to one thing; and another to another。

Few things can exceed the characters of human beings in variety。  There must be something abstractedly in the nature of mind; which renders it accessible to these varieties。  For the present we will call it taste。  One man feels his spirits regaled  with the sight of those things which constitute wealth; another in meditating the triumphs of Alexander 
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