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or a figure among his equals； as when he is addressed by his seniors。
One of the reasons of the latter phenomenon consists in the torpedo effect of what we may call； under the circumstances； the difference of ranks。 The schoolmaster is a despot to his scholar； for every man is a despot； who delivers his judgment from the single impulse of his own will。 The boy answers his questioner； as Dolon answers Ulysses in the Iliad； at the point of the sword。 It is to a certain degree the same thing； when the boy is questioned merely by his senior。 He fears he knows not what；a reprimand； a look of lofty contempt； a gesture of summary disdain。 He does not think it worth his while under these circumstances； to 〃gird up the loins of his mind。〃 He cannot return a free and intrepid answer but to the person whom he regards as his equal。 There is nothing that has so disqualifying an effect upon him who is to answer； as the consideration that he who questions is universally acknowledged to be a being of a higher sphere； or； as between the boy and the man； that he is the superior in conventional and corporal strength。
Nor is it simple terror that restrains the boy from answering his senior with the same freedom and spirit； as he would answer his equal。 He does not think it worth his while to enter the lists。 He despairs of doing the thing in the way that shall gain approbation； and therefore will not try。 He is like a boxer； who； though skilful； will not fight with one hand tied behind him。 He would return you the answer； if it occurred without his giving himself trouble； but he will not rouse his soul； and task his strength to give it。 He is careless； and prefers trusting to whatever construction you may put upon him； and whatever treatment you may think proper to bestow upon him。 It is the most difficult thing in the world； for the schoolmaster to inspire into his pupil the desire to do his best。
Among full…grown men the case is different。 The schoolboy； whether under his domestic roof； or in the gymnasium； is in a situation similar to that of the Christian slaves in Algiers； as described by Cervantes in his History of the Captive。 〃They were shut up together in a species of bagnio； from whence they were brought out from time to time to perform certain tasks in common：
they might also engage in pranks； and get into scrapes； as they pleased； but the master would hang up one； impale another； and cut off the ears of a third； for little occasion； or even wholly without it。〃 Such indeed is the condition of the child almost from the hour of birth。 The severities practised upon him are not so great as those resorted to by the proprietor of slaves in Algiers； but they are equally arbitrary and without appeal。 He is free to a certain extent； even as the captives described by Cervantes； but his freedom is upon sufferance； and is brought to an end at any time at the pleasure of his seniors。 The child therefore feels his way； and ascertains by repeated experiments how far he may proceed with impunity。 He is like the slaves of the Romans on the days of the Saturnalia。 He may do what he pleases； and command tasks to his masters； but with this differencethe Roman slave knew when the days of his licence would be over； and comported himself accordingly； but the child cannot foresee at any moment when the bell will be struck； and the scene reversed。 It is commonly enough incident to this situation； that the being who is at the mercy of another； will practise； what Tacitus calls； a 〃vernacular urbanity；〃 make his bold jests； and give utterance to his saucy innuendoes； with as much freedom as the best； but he will do it with a wary eye； not knowing how soon he may feel his chain plucked！ and himself compulsorily reduced into the established order。 His more usual refuge therefore is； to do nothing； and to wrap himself up in that neutrality towards his seniors； that may best protect him from their reprimand and their despotism。
The condition of the full…grown man is different from that of the child； and he conducts himself accordingly。 He is always to a certain degree under the control of the political society of which he is a member。 He is also exposed to the chance of personal insult and injury from those who are stronger than he； or who may render their strength more considerable by combination and numbers。 The political institutions which control him in certain respects； protect him also to a given degree from the robber and assassin； or from the man who； were it not for penalties and statutes； would perpetrate against him all the mischiefs which malignity might suggest。 Civil policy however subjects him to a variety of evils； which wealth or corruption are accustomed to inflict under the forms of justice； at the same time that it can never wholly defend him from those violences to which he would be every moment exposed in what is called the state of nature。
The full…grown man in the mean time is well pleased when he escapes from the ergastulum where he had previously dwelt； and in which he had experienced corporal infliction and corporal restraint。 At first； in the newness of his freedom； he breaks out into idle sallies and escapes； and is like the full…fed steed that manifests his wantonness in a thousand antics and ruades。 But this is a temporary extravagance。 He presently becomes as wise and calculating； as the schoolboy was before him。
The human being then； that has attained a certain stature； watches and poises his situation； and considers what he may do with impunity。 He ventures at first with no small diffidence； and pretends to be twice as assured as he really is。 He accumulates experiment after experiment； till they amount to a considerable volume。 It is not till he has passed successive lustres； that he attains that firm step； and temperate and settled accent； which characterise the man complete。 He then no longer doubts； but is ranged on the full level of the ripened members of the community。
There is therefore little room for wonder； if we find the same individual； whom we once knew a sheepish and irresolute schoolboy； that hung his head； that replied with inarticulated monotony； and stammered out his meaning； metamorphosed into a thoroughly manly character； who may take his place on the bench with senators； and deliver a grave and matured opinion as well as the best。 It appears then that the trial and review of full…grown men is not altogether so disadvantageous to the reckoning of our common nature； as that of boys at school。
It is not however； that the full…grown man is not liable to be checked； reprimanded and rebuked； even as the schoolboy is。 He has his wife to read him lectures； and rap his knuckles； he has his master； his landlord； or the mayor of his village； to tell him of his duty in an imperious style； and in measured sentences； if he is a member of a legislature； even there he receives his lessons； and is told； either in phrases of well…conceived irony； or by the exhibition of facts and reasonings which take him by surprise； that he is not altogether the person he deemed himself to be。 But he does not mind it。 Like Iago in the play； he 〃knows his price； and； by the faith of man； that he is worth no worse a place〃 than that which he occupies。 He finds out the value of the check he receives； and lets it 〃pass by him like the idle wind〃a mastery； which the schoolboy； however he may affect it； never thoroughly attains to。
But it unfortunately happens； that； before he has arrived at that degree of independence； the fate of the individual is too often decided for ever。 How are the majority of men trampled in the mire； made 〃hewers of wood； and drawers of water；〃 long； very long； before there was an opportunity of ascertaining what it was of which they were capable！ Thus almost every one is put in the place which by nature he was least fit for： and； while perhaps a sufficient quantity of talent is extant in each successive generation； yet； for want of each man's being duly estimated； and assigned his appropriate duty； the very reverse may appear to be the case。 By the time that they have attained to that sober self…confidence that might enable them to assert themselves； they are already chained to a fate； or thrust down to a condition； from which no internal energies they possess can ever empower them to escape。
SECTION II。
EQUALITY OF MAN WITH MAN。TALENTS EXTENSIVELY DISTRIBUTED。WAY IN WHICH THIS DISTRIBUTION IS COUNTERACTED。THE APTITUDE OF CHILDREN FOR DIFFERENT PURSUITS SHOULD BE EARLY SOUGHT OUT。 HINTS FOR A BETTER SYSTEM OF EDUCATION。AMBITION AN UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLE。
The reflections thus put down； may assist us in answering the question as to the way in which talents are distributed among men by the hand of nature。
All things upon the earth and under the earth； and especially all organised bodies of the animal or vegetable kingdom； fall into classes。 It is by this means； that the child no sooner learns the terms； man； horse； tree； flower； than； if an object of any of these kinds which he has never seen before； is exhibited to him； he pronounces without hesitation； This is a man； a horse； a tree； a flower。
All organised bodies of the animal or vegetable kingdom