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Emperor at Constantinople。 In ecclesiastical matters this
dependence was manifested in the direct nomination of the Russian
Metropolitan by the Byzantine Patriarch； very often not without
interference on the part of the Emperor。 In secular matters it
was rather theoretical than practical。 The Russian clergy more
than once advised the Grand Duke of Moscovy to recognise the
〃Tzar of the Greeks〃 as his lord paramount； and each time they
repeated the popular theory that the Byzantine Emperor was the
chief of the whole Christian world and therefore the sovereign
lord of all Christian kings and potentates。 This theory had been
first brought forward by Byzantine writers； who actually declared
that Constantine the Great had conferred the title of Tabularius
on the ruler of Russia as a recompense for his allegiance to the
Greek Empire。 Up to the end of the fourteenth century the title
of 〃Tzar〃 was exclusively applied in Russia to the Emperor of
Constantinople； and no Russian prince was allowed to dignify
himself with it。 The Russian clergy； in offering public prayer
for the health of the Emperor at Constantinople； spoke of him as
of 〃the Emperor of the Romans and Ruler of the Universe。〃（3*）
The attitude of Basileus III； Grand Duke of Russia； during
the time of the Florentine Union； his bold opposition to the
Patriarch Photius and to any compromise with the Romish Church；
led the Russian clergy to look upon him and his heirs as the
champions of orthodoxy in religion。 While the Duke of Moscovy was
considered the sole protector of the Greek Church； the Emperor at
Constantinople had become； in the eyes of the Russians； a
schismatic。 It was in order to free Moscovy from all dependence
on a schismatic Emperor that the account of the conversion of the
Eastern Slavs to Christianity was altered。 The apostle St。
Andrew； who； according to Armenian and Georgian traditions had
been the first to preach the Gospel in the Caucasus； was
officially declared to have been the St。 John the Baptist of the
Russians； Constantinople； being thus deprived of the honour of
being the birthplace of Russian Christianity； was accordingly
dispossessed of any right to exercise ecclesiastical supremacy
over the Russian Church。
The fall of Constantinople； which closely followed the
Florentine Union； settled the question of the ecclesiastical
autonomy of Russia； and contributed at the same time to
strengthen the power of the Moscovite Duke。 The Greek Church had
lost her secular head in the person of the last Emperor of
Constantinople； and the Slavonic principalities of the Balkan
Peninsula； as well as the subjugated Greeks； naturally turned
their eyes towards the most powerful of the Orthodox rulers。 This
was the Grand Duke of Moscovy； whose firm allegiance to the
ancient creed； and uncompromising attitude towards the Florentine
Union； contrasted favourably with the attitude of the last
Emperors towards the Popes of Rome。 People were led to
acknowledge that the fall of Constantinople was a well…deserved
punishment on a schismatic ruler； and they were also induced to
believe that the conquest of that city by the Turks ought to be
the occasion for the transfer of civil supremacy over the Greek
Church from Constantinople to Moscovy； from the Emperor to the
Grand Duke。
These ideas grew in strength when the last Emperor's sister；
Sophia Palaeologus； became by marriage the wife and mother of
Moscovite Princes。 A report was spread that the imperial title
had been transferred to the Grand Duke Ivan by no less a person
than his wife's brother； the legal heir of the Byzantine Empire。
The Grand Duke was anointed with great solemnity； and received
the title of 〃Tzar；〃 a title which； as we have seen； had hitherto
been exclusively given to the Greek Emperors。 An offer which the
German Emperor made through his special envoy； Herbertstein； to
grant the title of 〃king〃 to the Moscovite Grand Duke on
condition of his recognising his dependence upon the Holy Roman
Empire； was solemnly rejected； and in order to confirm the new
theory of the complete autonomy of the Russian tzardom； a
genealogy was invented； showing the direct descent of the house
of Rurik from Augustus and his supposed brother Pruss； the
mythical founder of Prussia。 One fact； however； stood in the way
of a universal recognition of these new pretensions to complete
autonomy； that was the continued dependence of the Moscovite
rulers on the khans of the Tartars。 But this was put an end to by
Ivan III； who was consequently the first to adorn himself with
the title of 〃Autocrat〃 （Samoderjez）； which to this day continues
to be the title of the Russian Tzars。
As Greek monks； and among them the well…known Maxime； began
to settle in Russia； Byzantine ideas about the derivation of
monarchical power from God； which were already entertained by
some of our monkish writers； were rapidly spread among the
people。 It is not without good reason that the celebrated
antagonist of Ivan the Terrible； Prince Kourbsky； accuses the
monks of having been the chief source of the servile theory；
according to which 〃the Tzar； in order to preserve his
independence； ought to have no counsellors more intelligent than
himself。〃 This theory was accepted with avidity by such tyrants
as Ivan the Cruel； who refers to it more than once in his
correspondence with the Polish king； Stephen Bathory。 The fact
that this prince was surrounded by a sort of parliament； the
Polish Seim； was declared by the Russian Tzar to be a manifest
proof of his political inferiority。 〃Autocracy （samoderjavsto）；〃
according to Ivan's idea； 〃was impossible with an elective
council； the autocrat must do everything by himself； he has to
give orders to his subjects； and these； last must obey like
serfs； and that according to the command of God。〃
These ideas； which had been expressed centuries before by
monkish writers； who had found them set forth in Byzantine
treatises； were far from being those of the generality of Russian
statesmen and thinkers。 When Prince Kourbsky advised the tyrant
Ivan to seek good and useful counsel； not only among the members
of his douma； a sort of curia regis but also among the
representatives of the people vsenarodnich chelovok he gave
utterance to an old political desire。 Another contemporary
writer； the unknown author of The Sermon of the Saints of Walaam；
gives way to the same feeling in the following terms： 〃The clergy
ought to advise the Tzar to keep a constant general council；
composed of persons coming from all the cities and districts of
his dominions。 Such a council must be kept； and their advice
taken day by day on every question which may occur。〃 Two
different institutions were meant by those who advised the Czar
to rule by the advice of his councillors。 One was as old as the
monarchy itself； and belonged to those old customs； which；
according to contemporary writers； had been scrupulously
maintained by former potentates。 I refer to the council of the
Boyars the Douma。 The other institution。 the history of which
will form the principal subject of our next lecture； was； on the
contrary； quite recent the States…General of Moscovy； the
Zemskii Sobor。
I will conclude what I have to say on the political
organisation of Russia during that intermediate period which
lasted from the fall of the ancient folkmotes to the convocation
of the States…General by a description of the first…named
council； the Douma。（4*） The study of the internal constitution of
the Douma is indispensable for the comprehension of the Part
which the higher nobility were called upon to play in the
management of the Moscovite State。 It will show that the power of
the Moscovite princes； absolute as it was； was yet to a certain
extent limited by the power of the nobility。 Up to the middle of
the sixteenth century the Boyars were the only persons admitted
to the exercise of executive； military； and judicial authority。
Under the name of voevods we find them at the head of provinces；
commanding their military forces and managing their
administrative interests。 As members of the Douma； they had to
advise the Tzar on all kinds of political； executive； military；
and financial questions。 No law was promulgated until after
previous deliberation on it by the Douma。 The same Douma
furnished the chief rulers of the State during the minority of
the Tzar； and it was in this way that the power of the Boyars
made itself felt among the lower classes of the population； who
soon came to look upon them as the chief cause of their misery。
The composition of the Moscovite council was at the beginning
very like that which we find in France under the early Capetian
kings。 The curia regis was chiefly formed from among the high
court officials； such as the majordome； the marshal； the
constable； the chancellor or cancellarius； the camerer or
camerarius； etc。 The same may be said of the Moscovite Douma of
the fourteenth century； as well as of the privy council of each
and every of the principalities into which medieval Russia was
divided anterior to the centralising growth of the Moscovite
power。 The business transacted at the court of a Russian princ