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n each county roads forty feet wide to the church and to the courthouse。 In 1700； Pennsylvania turned her local roads over to the county justices； put the King's highway and the main public roads under the care of the governor and his council； and ordered each county to erect bridges over its streams。
The word 〃roadmaking〃 was capable of several interpretations。 In general； it meant outlining the course for the new thoroughfare； clearing away fallen timber； blazing or notching the trees so that the traveler might not miss the track； and building bridges or laying logs 〃over all the marshy； swampy； and difficult dirty places。〃
The streams proved serious obstacles to early traffic。 It has been shown already that the earliest routes of animal or man sought the watersheds； the trails therefore usually encountered one stream near its junction with another。 At first； of course； fording was the common method of crossing water； and the most advantageous fording places were generally found near the mouths of tributary streams； where bars and islands are frequently formed and where the water is consequently shallow。 When ferries began to be used； they were usually situated just above or below the fords； but when the bridge succeeded the ferry； the primitive bridge builder went back to the old fording place in order to take advantage of the shallower water； bars； and islands。 With the advent of improved engineering； the character of river banks and currents was more frequently taken into consideration in choosing a site for a bridge than was the case in the olden times； but despite this fact the bridges of today； generally speaking； span the rivers where the deer or the buffalo splashed his way across centuries ago。
On the broader streams； where fording was impossible and traffic was perforce carried by ferry； the canoe and the keel boat of the earliest days gave way in time to the ordinary 〃flat〃 or barge。 At first the obligation of the ferryman to the public； though recognized by English law； was ignored in America by legislators and monopolists alike。 Men obtained the land on both sides of the rivers at the crossing places and served the public only at their own convenience and at their own charges。 In many cases； to encourage the opening of roads or of ferries； national and state authorities made grants of land on the same principle followed in later days in the case of Western railroads。 Such； for instance； was the grant to Ebenezer Zane； at Zanesville； Lancaster； and Chillicothe in the Northwest Territory。 These monopolies sometimes were extremely profitable： a descendant of the owners of the famous Ingles ferry across New River； on the Wilderness Road to Kentucky； is responsible for the statement that in the heyday of travel to the Southwest the privilege was worth from 10；000 to 15；000 annually to the family。 But as local governments became more efficient； monopolies were abolished and the collection of tolls was taken over by the authorities。 The awakening of inland trade is most clearly indicated everywhere by the action of assemblies regarding the operation of ferries； and in general； by the beginning of the eighteenth century； tolls and ferries were being regulated by law。
But neither roads nor ferries were of themselves sufficient to put a nation on wheels。 The early polite society of the settled neighborhoods traveled in horse litters； in sedan chairs； or on horseback； the women seated on pillions or cushions behind the saddle riders； while oxcarts and horse barrows brought to town the produce of the outlying farms。 Although carts and rude wagons could be built entirely of wood； there could be no marked advance in transportation until the development of mining in certain localities reduced the price of iron。 With the increase of travel and trade； the old world coach and chaise and wain came into use； and iron for tire and brace became an imperative necessity。 The connection between the production of iron and the care of highways was recognized by legislation as early as 1732； when Maryland excused men and slaves in the ironworks from labor on the public roads； though by the middle of the century owners of ironworks were obliged to detail one man out of every ten in their employ for such work。
While the coastwise trade between the colonies was still preeminently important as a means of transporting commodities； by the beginning of the eighteenth century the land routes from New York to New England； from New York across New Jersey to Philadelphia； and those radiating from Philadelphia in every direction； were coming into general use。 The date of the opening of regular freight traffic between New York and Philadelphia is set by the reply of the Governor of New Jersey in 1707 to a protest against monopolies granted on one of the old widened Indian trails between Burlington and Amboy。 〃At present；〃 he says； 〃everybody is sure； ONCE A FORTNIGHT； to have an opportunity of sending any quantity of goods； great or small； at reasonable rates； without being in danger of imposition； and the sending of this wagon is so far from being a grievance or monopoly； THAT BY THIS MEANS AND NO OTHER； a trade has been carried on between Philadelphia； Burlington； Amboy； and New York； which was never known before。〃
The long Philadelphia Road from the Lancaster region into the Valley of Virginia； by way of Wadkins on the Potomac； was used by German and Irish traders probably as early as 1700。 In 1728 the people of Maryland were petitioning for a road from the ford of the Monocacy to the home of Nathan Wickham。 Four years later Jost Heydt； leading an immigrant party southward； broke open a road from the York Barrens toward the Potomac two miles above Harper's Ferry。 This avenue by way of the Berkeley； Staunton； Watauga； and Greenbrier regions to Tennessee and Kentuckywas the longest and most important in America during the Revolutionary period。 The Virginia Assembly in 1779 appointed commissioners to view this route and to report on the advisability of making it a wagon road all the way to Kentucky。 In 1795； efforts were made in Kentucky to turn the Wilderness Trail into a wagon road； and in this same year the Kentucky Legislature passed an act making the route from Crab Orchard to Cumberland Gap a wagon road thirty feet in width。
》From Pennsylvania and from Virginia commerce westward bound followed in the main the army roads hewn out by Braddock and Forbes in their campaigns against Fort Duquesne。 In 1755； Braddock； marching from Alexandria by way of Fort Cumberland； had opened a passage for his artillery and wagons to Laurel Hill； near Uniontown； Pennsylvania。 His force included a corps of seamen equipped with block and tackle to raise and lower his wagons in the steep inclines of the Alleghanies。 Three years later； Forbes； in his careful； dogged campaign； followed a more northerly route。 Advancing from Philadelphia and Carlisle； he established Fort Bedford and Fort Ligonier as bases of supply and broke a new road through the interminable forest which clothed the rugged mountain ranges。 From the first there was bitter rivalry between these two routes； and the young Colonel Washington was roundly criticized by both Forbes and Bouquet； his second in command； for his partisan effort to 〃drive me down；〃 as Forbes phrased it； into the Virginia or Braddock's Road。 This rivalry between the two routes continued when the destruction of the French power over the roads in the interior threw open to Pennsylvania and her southern neighbors alike the lucrative trade of the Ohio country。
》From the journals of the time may be caught faint glimpses of the toils and dangers of travel through these wild hill regions。 Let the traveler of today； as he follows the track that once was Braddock's Road； picture the scene of that earlier time when； in the face of every natural obstacle； the army toiled across the mountain chains。 Where the earth in yonder ravine is whipped to a black froth； the engineers have thrown down the timber cut in widening the trail and have constructed a corduroy bridge； or rather a loose raft on a sea of muck。 The wreck of the last wagon which tried to pass gives some additional safety to the next。 Already the stench from the horse killed in the accident deadens the heavy； heated air of the forest。 The sailors； stripped to the waist； are ready with ropes and tackle to let the next wagon down the incline； the pulleys creak； the ropes groan。 The horses； weak and terror…stricken； plunge and rear； in the final crash to the level the leg of the wheel horse is caught and broken； one of the soldiers shoots the animal； the traces are unbuckled； another beast is substituted。 Beyond； the seamen are waiting with tackle attached to trees on the ridge above to assist the horses on the cruel upgradeand Braddock； the deceived； maligned； misrepresented； and misjudged； creeps onward in his brave conquest of the Alleghanies in a campaign that； in spite of its military failure； deserves honorable mention among the achievements of British arms。
Everywhere； north and south； the early American road was a veritable Slough of Despond。 Watery pits were to be encountered wherein horses were drowned and loads sank from sight。 Frequently traffic was stopped