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the language of civic life； the poets of our time； the language of the
rhetoricians。 Character is that which reveals moral purpose； showing
what kind of things a man chooses or avoids。 Speeches； therefore；
which do not make this manifest； or in which the speaker does not
choose or avoid anything whatever； are not expressive of character。
Thought； on the other hand； is found where something is proved to be
or not to be； or a general maxim is enunciated。
Fourth among the elements enumerated comes Diction； by which I mean；
as has been already said； the expression of the meaning in words；
and its essence is the same both in verse and prose。
Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place among the
embellishments
The Spectacle has； indeed； an emotional attraction of its own；
but； of all the parts； it is the least artistic； and connected least
with the art of poetry。 For the power of Tragedy； we may be sure； is
felt even apart from representation and actors。 Besides； the
production of spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage
machinist than on that of the poet。
POETICS｜7
VII
These principles being established； let us now discuss the proper
structure of the Plot； since this is the first and most important
thing in Tragedy。
Now； according to our definition Tragedy is an imitation of an
action that is complete； and whole； and of a certain magnitude； for
there may be a whole that is wanting in magnitude。 A whole is that
which has a beginning； a middle； and an end。 A beginning is that which
does not itself follow anything by causal necessity； but after which
something naturally is or comes to be。 An end； on the contrary； is
that which itself naturally follows some other thing； either by
necessity； or as a rule； but has nothing following it。 A middle is
that which follows something as some other thing follows it。 A well
constructed plot； therefore； must neither begin nor end at
haphazard； but conform to these principles。
Again； a beautiful object； whether it be a living organism or any
whole composed of parts； must not only have an orderly arrangement
of parts； but must also be of a certain magnitude； for beauty
depends on magnitude and order。 Hence a very small animal organism
cannot be beautiful； for the view of it is confused； the object
being seen in an almost imperceptible moment of time。 Nor； again；
can one of vast size be beautiful； for as the eye cannot take it all
in at once； the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the
spectator； as for instance if there were one a thousand miles long。
As； therefore； in the case of animate bodies and organisms a certain
magnitude is necessary； and a magnitude which may be easily embraced
in one view； so in the plot； a certain length is necessary； and a
length which can be easily embraced by the memory。 The limit of length
in relation to dramatic competition and sensuous presentment is no
part of artistic theory。 For had it been the rule for a hundred
tragedies to compete together； the performance would have been
regulated by the water…clock… as indeed we are told was formerly done。
But the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is this：
the greater the length； the more beautiful will the piece be by reason
of its size； provided that the whole be perspicuous。 And to define the
matter roughly； we may say that the proper magnitude is comprised
within such limits； that the sequence of events； according to the
law of probability or necessity； will admit of a change from bad
fortune to good； or from good fortune to bad。
POETICS｜8
VIII
Unity of plot does not； as some persons think； consist in the
unity of the hero。 For infinitely various are the incidents in one
man's life which cannot be reduced to unity； and so； too； there are
many actions of one man out of which we cannot make one action。
Hence the error； as it appears； of all poets who have composed a
Heracleid； a Theseid； or other poems of the kind。 They imagine that as
Heracles was one man； the story of Heracles must also be a unity。
But Homer； as in all else he is of surpassing merit； here too… whether
from art or natural genius… seems to have happily discerned the truth。
In composing the Odyssey he did not include all the adventures of
Odysseus… such as his wound on Parnassus； or his feigned madness at
the mustering of the host… incidents between which there was no
necessary or probable connection： but he made the Odyssey； and
likewise the Iliad； to center round an action that in our sense of the
word is one。 As therefore； in the other imitative arts； the
imitation is one when the object imitated is one； so the plot； being
an imitation of an action； must imitate one action and that a whole；
the structural union of the parts being such that； if any one of
them is displaced or removed； the whole will be disjointed and
disturbed。 For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible
difference； is not an organic part of the whole。
POETICS｜9
IX
It is； moreover； evident from what has been said； that it is not the
function of the poet to relate what has happened； but what may happen…
what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity。 The
poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose。 The
work of Herodotus might be put into verse； and it would still be a
species of history； with meter no less than without it。 The true
difference is that one relates what has happened； the other what may
happen。 Poetry； therefore； is a more philosophical and a higher
thing than history： for poetry tends to express the universal； history
the particular。 By the universal I mean how a person of a certain type
on occasion speak or act； according to the law of probability or
necessity； and it is this universality at which poetry aims in the
names she attaches to the personages。 The particular is… for
example… what Alcibiades did or suffered。 In Comedy this is already
apparent： for here the poet first constructs the plot on the lines
of probability； and then inserts characteristic names… unlike the
lampooners who write about particular individuals。 But tragedians
still keep to real names； the reason being that what is possible is
credible： what has not happened we do not at once feel sure to be
possible； but what has happened is manifestly possible： otherwise it
would not have happened。 Still there are even some tragedies in
which there are only one or two well…known names； the rest being
fictitious。 In others； none are well known… as in Agathon's Antheus；
where incidents and names alike are fictitious； and yet they give none
the less pleasure。 We must not； therefore； at all costs keep to the
received legends； which are the usual subjects of Tragedy。 Indeed；
it would be absurd to attempt it； for even subjects that are known are
known only to a few； and yet give pleasure to all。 It clearly
follows that the poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots rather
than of verses； since he is a poet because he imitates； and what he
imitates are actions。 And even if he chances to take a historical
subject； he is none the less a poet； for there is no reason why some
events that have actually happened should not conform to the law of
the probable and possible； and in virtue of that quality in them he is
their poet or maker。
Of all plots and actions the episodic are the worst。 I call a plot
'episodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without
probable or necessary sequence。 Bad poets compose such pieces by their
own fault； good poets； to please the players； for； as they write
show pieces for competition； they stretch the plot beyond its
capacity； and are often forced to break the natural continuity。
But again； Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action；
but of events inspiring fear or pity。 Such an effect is best
produced when the events come on us by surprise； and the effect is
heightened when； at the same time； they follows as cause and effect。
The tragic wonder will then be greater than if they happened of
themselves or by accident； for even coincidences are most striking
when they have an air of design。 We may instance the statue of Mitys
at Argos； which fell upon his murderer while he was a spectator at a
festival； and killed him。 Such events seem not to be due to mere
chance。 Plots； therefore； constructed on these principles are
necessarily the best。
POETICS｜10
X
Plots are either Simple or Complex； for the actions in real life； of
which the plots are an imitation； obviously show a similar
distinction。 An action which is one and continuous in the sense
abov