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which the plots are an imitation； obviously show a similar
distinction。 An action which is one and continuous in the sense
above defined； I call Simple； when the change of fortune takes place
without Reversal of the Situation and without Recognition
A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such
Reversal； or by Recognition； or by both。 These last should arise
from the internal structure of the plot； so that what follows should
be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action。 It
makes all the difference whether any given event is a case of
propter hoc or post hoc。
POETICS｜11
XI
Reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers
round to its opposite； subject always to our rule of probability or
necessity。 Thus in the Oedipus； the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus
and free him from his alarms about his mother； but by revealing who he
is； he produces the opposite effect。 Again in the Lynceus； Lynceus
is being led away to his death； and Danaus goes with him； meaning to
slay him； but the outcome of the preceding incidents is that Danaus is
killed and Lynceus saved。
Recognition； as the name indicates； is a change from ignorance to
knowledge； producing love or hate between the persons destined by
the poet for good or bad fortune。 The best form of recognition is
coincident with a Reversal of the Situation； as in the Oedipus。
There are indeed other forms。 Even inanimate things of the most
trivial kind may in a sense be objects of recognition。 Again； we may
recognize or discover whether a person has done a thing or not。 But
the recognition which is most intimately connected with the plot and
action is； as we have said； the recognition of persons。 This
recognition； combined with Reversal； will produce either pity or fear；
and actions producing these effects are those which； by our
definition； Tragedy represents。 Moreover； it is upon such situations
that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend。 Recognition； then；
being between persons； it may happen that one person only is
recognized by the other… when the latter is already known… or it may
be necessary that the recognition should be on both sides。 Thus
Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter； but
another act of recognition is required to make Orestes known to
Iphigenia。
Two parts； then； of the Plot… Reversal of the Situation and
Recognition… turn upon surprises。 A third part is the Scene of
Suffering。 The Scene of Suffering is a destructive or painful
action； such as death on the stage； bodily agony； wounds； and the
like。
POETICS｜12
XII
The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the
whole have been already mentioned。 We now come to the quantitative
parts… the separate parts into which Tragedy is divided… namely；
Prologue； Episode； Exode； Choric song； this last being divided into
Parode and Stasimon。 These are common to all plays： peculiar to some
are the songs of actors from the stage and the Commoi。
The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the
Parode of the Chorus。 The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy
which is between complete choric songs。 The Exode is that entire
part of a tragedy which has no choric song after it。 Of the Choric
part the Parode is the first undivided utterance of the Chorus： the
Stasimon is a Choric ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters：
the Commos is a joint lamentation of Chorus and actors。 The parts of
Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have been
already mentioned。 The quantitative parts… the separate parts into
which it is divided… are here enumerated。
POETICS｜13
XIII
As the sequel to what has already been said； we must proceed to
consider what the poet should aim at； and what he should avoid； in
constructing his plots； and by what means the specific effect of
Tragedy will be produced。
A perfect tragedy should； as we have seen； be arranged not on the
simple but on the complex plan。 It should； moreover； imitate actions
which excite pity and fear； this being the distinctive mark of
tragic imitation。 It follows plainly； in the first place； that the
change of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous
man brought from prosperity to adversity： for this moves neither
pity nor fear； it merely shocks us。 Nor； again； that of a bad man
passing from adversity to prosperity： for nothing can be more alien to
the spirit of Tragedy； it possesses no single tragic quality； it
neither satisfies the moral sense nor calls forth pity or fear。 Nor；
again； should the downfall of the utter villain be exhibited。 A plot
of this kind would； doubtless； satisfy the moral sense； but it would
inspire neither pity nor fear； for pity is aroused by unmerited
misfortune； fear by the misfortune of a man like ourselves。 Such an
event； therefore； will be neither pitiful nor terrible。 There remains；
then； the character between these two extremes… that of a man who is
not eminently good and just； yet whose misfortune is brought about not
by vice or depravity； but by some error or frailty。 He must be one who
is highly renowned and prosperous… a personage like Oedipus； Thyestes；
or other illustrious men of such families。
A well…constructed plot should； therefore； be single in its issue；
rather than double as some maintain。 The change of fortune should be
not from bad to good； but； reversely； from good to bad。 It should come
about as the result not of vice； but of some great error or frailty；
in a character either such as we have described； or better rather than
worse。 The practice of the stage bears out our view。 At first the
poets recounted any legend that came in their way。 Now； the best
tragedies are founded on the story of a few houses… on the fortunes of
Alcmaeon； Oedipus； Orestes； Meleager； Thyestes； Telephus； and those
others who have done or suffered something terrible。 A tragedy； then；
to be perfect according to the rules of art should be of this
construction。 Hence they are in error who censure Euripides just
because he follows this principle in his plays； many of which end
unhappily。 It is； as we have said； the right ending。 The best proof is
that on the stage and in dramatic competition； such plays； if well
worked out； are the most tragic in effect； and Euripides； faulty
though he may be in the general management of his subject； yet is felt
to be the most tragic of the poets。
In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first。
Like the Odyssey； it has a double thread of plot； and also an opposite
catastrophe for the good and for the bad。 It is accounted the best
because of the weakness of the spectators； for the poet is guided in
what he writes by the wishes of his audience。 The pleasure； however；
thence derived is not the true tragic pleasure。 It is proper rather to
Comedy； where those who； in the piece； are the deadliest enemies… like
Orestes and Aegisthus… quit the stage as friends at the close； and
no one slays or is slain。
POETICS｜14
XIV
Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means； but they may also
result from the inner structure of the piece； which is the better way；
and indicates a superior poet。 For the plot ought to be so constructed
that； even without the aid of the eye； he who hears the tale told will
thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes Place。 This is the
impression we should receive from hearing the story of the Oedipus。
But to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic
method； and dependent on extraneous aids。 Those who employ spectacular
means to create a sense not of the terrible but only of the monstrous；
are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy； for we must not demand of
Tragedy any and every kind of pleasure； but only that which is
proper to it。 And since the pleasure which the poet should afford is
that which comes from pity and fear through imitation； it is evident
that this quality must be impressed upon the incidents。
Let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us
as terrible or pitiful。
Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are
either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another。 If an enemy
kills an enemy； there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or
the intention… except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful。 So
again with indifferent persons。 But when the tragic incident occurs
between those who are near or dear to one another… if； for example；
a brother kills； or intends to kill； a brother； a son his father； a
mother her son； a son his mother； or any other deed