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mother her son； a son his mother； or any other deed of the kind is
done… these are the situations to be looked for by the poet。 He may
not indeed destroy the framework of the received legends… the fact；
for instance； that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle by
Alcmaeon… but he ought to show of his own； and skilfully handle the
traditional。 material。 Let us explain more clearly what is meant by
skilful handling。
The action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the
persons； in the manner of the older poets。 It is thus too that
Euripides makes Medea slay her children。 Or； again； the deed of horror
may be done； but done in ignorance； and the tie of kinship or
friendship be discovered afterwards。 The Oedipus of Sophocles is an
example。 Here； indeed； the incident is outside the drama proper； but
cases occur where it falls within the action of the play： one may cite
the Alcmaeon of Astydamas； or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus。
Again； there is a third case… ＇to be about to act with knowledge of
the persons and then not to act。 The fourth case＇ is when some one
is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance； and makes the
discovery before it is done。 These are the only possible ways。 For the
deed must either be done or not done… and that wittingly or
unwittingly。 But of all these ways； to be about to act knowing the
persons； and then not to act； is the worst。 It is shocking without
being tragic； for no disaster follows It is； therefore； never； or very
rarely； found in poetry。 One instance； however； is in the Antigone；
where Haemon threatens to kill Creon。 The next and better way is
that the deed should be perpetrated。 Still better； that it should be
perpetrated in ignorance； and the discovery made afterwards。 There
is then nothing to shock us； while the discovery produces a
startling effect。 The last case is the best； as when in the
Cresphontes Merope is about to slay her son； but； recognizing who he
is； spares his life。 So in the Iphigenia； the sister recognizes the
brother just in time。 Again in the Helle； the son recognizes the
mother when on the point of giving her up。 This； then； is why a few
families only； as has been already observed； furnish the subjects of
tragedy。 It was not art； but happy chance； that led the poets in
search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their plots。
They are compelled； therefore； to have recourse to those houses
whose history contains moving incidents like these。
Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the
incidents； and the right kind of plot。
POETICS｜15
XV
In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at。 First；
and most important； it must be good。 Now any speech or action that
manifests moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character：
the character will be good if the purpose is good。 This rule is
relative to each class。 Even a woman may be good； and also a slave；
though the woman may be said to be an inferior being； and the slave
quite worthless。 The second thing to aim at is propriety。 There is a
type of manly valor； but valor in a woman； or unscrupulous
cleverness is inappropriate。 Thirdly； character must be true to
life： for this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety； as
here described。 The fourth point is consistency： for though the
subject of the imitation； who suggested the type； be inconsistent；
still he must be consistently inconsistent。 As an example of
motiveless degradation of character； we have Menelaus in the
Orestes； of character indecorous and inappropriate； the lament of
Odysseus in the Scylla； and the speech of Melanippe； of inconsistency；
the Iphigenia at Aulis… for Iphigenia the suppliant in no way
resembles her later self。
As in the structure of the plot； so too in the portraiture of
character； the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the
probable。 Thus a person of a given character should speak or act in
a given way； by the rule either of necessity or of probability； just
as this event should follow that by necessary or probable sequence。 It
is therefore evident that the unraveling of the plot； no less than the
complication； must arise out of the plot itself； it must not be
brought about by the Deus ex Machina… as in the Medea； or in the
return of the Greeks in the Iliad。 The Deus ex Machina should be
employed only for events external to the drama… for antecedent or
subsequent events； which lie beyond the range of human knowledge；
and which require to be reported or foretold； for to the gods we
ascribe the power of seeing all things。 Within the action there must
be nothing irrational。 If the irrational cannot be excluded； it should
be outside the scope of the tragedy。 Such is the irrational element
the Oedipus of Sophocles。
Again； since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the
common level； the example of good portrait painters should be
followed。 They； while reproducing the distinctive form of the
original； make a likeness which is true to life and yet more
beautiful。 So too the poet； in representing men who are irascible or
indolent； or have other defects of character； should preserve the type
and yet ennoble it。 In this way Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and
Homer。
These then are rules the poet should observe。 Nor should he
neglect those appeals to the senses； which； though not among the
essentials； are the concomitants of poetry； for here too there is much
room for error。 But of this enough has been said in our published
treatises。
POETICS｜16
XVI
What Recognition is has been already explained。 We will now
enumerate its kinds。
First； the least artistic form； which； from poverty of wit； is
most commonly employed… recognition by signs。 Of these some are
congenital… such as 'the spear which the earth…born race bear on their
bodies；' or the stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes。 Others
are acquired after birth； and of these some are bodily marks； as
scars； some external tokens； as necklaces； or the little ark in the
Tyro by which the discovery is effected。 Even these admit of more or
less skilful treatment。 Thus in the recognition of Odysseus by his
scar； the discovery is made in one way by the nurse； in another by the
swineherds。 The use of tokens for the express purpose of proof… and；
indeed； any formal proof with or without tokens… is a less artistic
mode of recognition。 A better kind is that which comes about by a turn
of incident； as in the Bath Scene in the Odyssey。
Next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet； and on that
account wanting in art。 For example； Orestes in the Iphigenia
reveals the fact that he is Orestes。 She； indeed； makes herself
known by the letter； but he； by speaking himself； and saying what
the poet； not what the plot requires。 This； therefore； is nearly
allied to the fault above mentioned… for Orestes might as well have
brought tokens with him。 Another similar instance is the 'voice of the
shuttle' in the Tereus of Sophocles。
The third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object
awakens a feeling： as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes； where the hero
breaks into tears on seeing the picture； or again in the Lay of
Alcinous； where Odysseus； hearing the minstrel play the lyre；
recalls the past and weeps； and hence the recognition。
The fourth kind is by process of reasoning。 Thus in the Choephori：
'Some one resembling me has come： no one resembles me but Orestes：
therefore Orestes has come。' Such too is the discovery made by
Iphigenia in the play of Polyidus the Sophist。 It was a natural
reflection for Orestes to make； 'So I too must die at the altar like
my sister。' So； again； in the Tydeus of Theodectes； the father says；
'I came to find my son； and I lose my own life。' So too in the
Phineidae： the women； on seeing the place； inferred their fate…
'Here we are doomed to die； for here we were cast forth。' Again； there
is a composite kind of recognition involving false inference on the
part of one of the characters； as in the Odysseus Disguised as a
Messenger。 A said ＇that no one else was able to bend the bow； 。。。
hence B （the disguised Odysseus） imagined that A would＇ recognize
the bow which； in fact； he had not seen； and to bring about a
recognition by this means… the expectation that A would recognize
the bow… is false inference。
But； of all recognitions； the best is that which arises from the
incidents themselves； where the startling discovery is made by natural
means。 Such is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles； and in the Iphigenia；
for it was natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter。
These re