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Homer； admirable in all respects； has the special merit of being the
only poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself。 The
poet should speak as little as possible in his own person； for it is
not this that makes him an imitator。 Other poets appear themselves
upon the scene throughout； and imitate but little and rarely。 Homer；
after a few prefatory words； at once brings in a man； or woman； or
other personage； none of them wanting in characteristic qualities； but
each with a character of his own。
The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy。 The irrational；
on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects； has wider
scope in Epic poetry； because there the person acting is not seen。
Thus； the pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the
stage… the Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit； and
Achilles waving them back。 But in the Epic poem the absurdity passes
unnoticed。 Now the wonderful is pleasing； as may be inferred from
the fact that every one tells a story with some addition of his
knowing that his hearers like it。 It is Homer who has chiefly taught
other poets the art of telling lies skilfully。 The secret of it lies
in a fallacy For； assuming that if one thing is or becomes； a second
is or becomes； men imagine that； if the second is； the first
likewise is or becomes。 But this is a false inference。 Hence； where
the first thing is untrue； it is quite unnecessary； provided the
second be true； to add that the first is or has become。 For the
mind； knowing the second to be true； falsely infers the truth of the
first。 There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the Odyssey。
Accordingly； the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to
improbable possibilities。 The tragic plot must not be composed of
irrational parts。 Everything irrational should； if possible； be
excluded； or； at all events； it should lie outside the action of the
play （as； in the Oedipus； the hero's ignorance as to the manner of
Laius' death）； not within the drama… as in the Electra； the
messenger's account of the Pythian games； or； as in the Mysians； the
man who has come from Tegea to Mysia and is still speechless。 The plea
that otherwise the plot would have been ruined； is ridiculous； such
a plot should not in the first instance be constructed。 But once the
irrational has been introduced and an air of likelihood imparted to
it； we must accept it in spite of the absurdity。 Take even the
irrational incidents in the Odyssey； where Odysseus is left upon the
shore of Ithaca。 How intolerable even these might have been would be
apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject。 As it is；
the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with which the poet
invests it。
The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action；
where there is no expression of character or thought。 For； conversely；
character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is
over…brilliant
POETICS｜25
XXV
With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions； the
number and nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be
thus exhibited。
The poet being an imitator； like a painter or any other artist； must
of necessity imitate one of three objects… things as they were or are；
things as they are said or thought to be； or things as they ought to
be。 The vehicle of expression is language… either current terms or； it
may be； rare words or metaphors。 There are also many modifications
of language； which we concede to the poets。 Add to this； that the
standard of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics； any
more than in poetry and any other art。 Within the art of poetry itself
there are two kinds of faults… those which touch its essence； and
those which are accidental。 If a poet has chosen to imitate something；
＇but has imitated it incorrectly＇ through want of capacity； the
error is inherent in the poetry。 But if the failure is due to a
wrong choice… if he has represented a horse as throwing out both his
off legs at once； or introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine；
for example； or in any other art… the error is not essential to the
poetry。 These are the points of view from which we should consider and
answer the objections raised by the critics。
First as to matters which concern the poet's own art。 If he
describes the impossible； he is guilty of an error； but the error
may be justified； if the end of the art be thereby attained （the end
being that already mentioned）… if； that is； the effect of this or
any other part of the poem is thus rendered more striking。 A case in
point is the pursuit of Hector。 if； however； the end might have been
as well； or better； attained without violating the special rules of
the poetic art； the error is not justified： for every kind of error
should； if possible； be avoided。
Again； does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art； or
some accident of it？ For example； not to know that a hind has no horns
is a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically。
Further； if it be objected that the description is not true to fact；
the poet may perhaps reply； 'But the objects are as they ought to be'；
just as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be；
Euripides； as they are。 In this way the objection may be met。 If；
however； the representation be of neither kind； the poet may answer；
'This is how men say the thing is。' applies to tales about the gods。
It may well be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet
true to fact： they are； very possibly； what Xenophanes says of them。
But anyhow； 'this is what is said。' Again； a description may be no
better than the fact： 'Still； it was the fact'； as in the passage
about the arms： 'Upright upon their butt…ends stood the spears。'
This was the custom then； as it now is among the Illyrians。
Again； in examining whether what has been said or done by some
one is poetically right or not； we must not look merely to the
particular act or saying； and ask whether it is poetically good or
bad。 We must also consider by whom it is said or done； to whom；
when； by what means； or for what end； whether； for instance； it be
to secure a greater good； or avert a greater evil。
Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of
language。 We may note a rare word； as in oureas men proton； 'the mules
first ＇he killed＇；' where the poet perhaps employs oureas not in the
sense of mules； but of sentinels。 So； again； of Dolon： 'ill…favored
indeed he was to look upon。' It is not meant that his body was
ill…shaped but that his face was ugly； for the Cretans use the word
eueides； 'well…flavored' to denote a fair face。 Again； zoroteron de
keraie； 'mix the drink livelier' does not mean 'mix it stronger' as
for hard drinkers； but 'mix it quicker。'
Sometimes an expression is metaphorical； as 'Now all gods and men
were sleeping through the night；' while at the same time the poet
says： 'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain； he
marveled at the sound of flutes and pipes。' 'All' is here used
metaphorically for 'many；' all being a species of many。 So in the
verse； 'alone she hath no part。。。 ； oie； 'alone' is metaphorical；
for the best known may be called the only one。
Again； the solution may depend upon accent or breathing。 Thus
Hippias of Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines； didomen
（didomen） de hoi； and to men hou （ou） kataputhetai ombro。
Or again； the question may be solved by punctuation； as in
Empedocles： 'Of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt
to be immortal； and things unmixed before mixed。'
Or again； by ambiguity of meaning； as parocheken de pleo nux；
where the word pleo is ambiguous。
Or by the usage of language。 Thus any mixed drink is called oinos；
'wine'。 Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to Zeus；' though
the gods do not drink wine。 So too workers in iron are called
chalkeas； or 'workers in bronze。' This； however； may also be taken
as a metaphor。
Again； when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning；
we should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular
passage。 For example： 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'… we
should ask in how many ways we may take 'being checked there。' The
true mode of interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon
mentions。 Critics； he says； jump at certain groundless conclusions；
they pass adverse judgement and then proceed to reason on it； and；
assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen to think； find
fault if a thing is inconsistent with their own fancy。
The question about Icarius has been treated in this fashion。 T