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noisy summoner for ecclesiastical offences： hunters and gluttons
are they； with greyhounds and furs；； greasy and fat； and full of
dalliances； at home in taverns； unprincipled but agreeable
vagabonds； who cheat and rob the people； and make a mockery of what
is most sacred on the earth。 These privileged mendicants； with
their relics and indulgences； their arts and their lies； and the
scandals they create； are treated by Chaucer with blended humor and
severity； showing a mind as enlightened as that of the great
scholar at Oxford； who heads the movement against Rome and the
abuses at which she connived if she did not encourage。 And there
is something intensely English in his disgust and scorn；brave for
his day； yet shielded by the great duke who was at once his
protector and friend； as he was of Wyclif himself；in his severer
denunciation； and advocacy of doctrines which neither Chaucer nor
Duke of Lancaster understood； and which； if they had； they would
not have sympathized with nor encouraged。 In these attacks on
ecclesiastics and ecclesiastical abuses； Chaucer should be studied
with Wyclif and the early reformers； although he would not have
gone so far as they； and led； unlike them； a worldly life。 Thus by
these poems he has rendered a service to his country； outside his
literary legacy； which has always been held in value。 The father
of English poetry belonged to the school of progress and of
inquiry； like his great contemporaries on the Continent。 But while
he paints the manners； customs； and characters of the fourteenth
century； he does not throw light on the great ideas which agitated
or enslaved the age。 He is too real and practical for that。 he
describes the outward； not the inner life。 He was not serious
enoughI doubt if he was learned enoughto enter into the
disquisitions of schoolmen； or the mazes of the scholastic
philosophy； or the meditations of almost inspired sages。 It is not
the joys of heaven or the terrors of hell on which he discourses；
but of men and women as they lived around him； in their daily
habits and occupations。 We must go to Wyclif if we would know the
theological or philosophical doctrines which interested the
learned。 Chaucer only tells how monks and friars lived； not how
they speculated or preached。 We see enough； however； to feel that
he was emancipated from the ideas of the Middle Ages； and had cast
off their gloom； their superstition； and their despair。 The only
things he liked of those dreary times were their courts of love and
their chivalric glories。
I do not propose to analyze the poetry of Chaucer； or enter upon a
critical inquiry as to his relative merits in comparison with the
other great poets。 It is sufficient for me to know that critics
place him very high as an original poet； although it is admitted
that he drew much of his material from French and Italian authors。
He was； for his day； a great linguist。 He had travelled
extensively； and could speak Latin； French； and Italian with
fluency。 He knew Petrarch and other eminent Italians。 One is
amazed that in such an age he could have written so well； for he
had no great models to help him in his own language。 If
occasionally indecent； he is not corrupting。 He never deliberately
disseminates moral poison； and when he speaks of love； he treats
almost solely of the simple and genuine emotions of the heart。
The best criticism that I have read of Chaucer's poetry is that of
Adolphus William Ward； although as a biography it is not so full or
so interesting as that of Godwin or even Morley。 In no life that I
have read are the mental characteristics of our poet so ably
drawn；〃his practical good sense；〃 his love of books； his still
deeper love of nature； his naivete； the readiness of his
description； the brightness of his imagery； the easy flow of his
diction； the vividness with which he describes character； his
inventiveness； his readiness of illustration； his musical rhythm；
his gaiety and cheerfulness； his vivacity and joyousness； his
pathos and tenderness； his keen sense of the ridiculous and power
of satire； without being bitter； so that his wit and fun are
harmless； and perpetually pleasing。
He doubtless had great dramatic talent； but he did not live in a
dramatic age。 His especial excellence； never surpassed； was his
power of observing and drawing character； united with boundless
humor and cheerful fun。 And his descriptions of nature are as true
and unstinted as his descriptions of men and women； so that he is
as fresh as the month of May。 In his poetry is life； and hence his
immortal fame。 He is not so great as Spenser or Shakspeare or
Milton； but he has the same vitality as they； and is as wonderful
as they considering his age and opportunities；a poet who
constantly improved as he advanced in life； and whose greatest work
was written in his old age。
Unfortunately； we know but little of Chaucer's habits and
experiences； his trials and disappointments； his friendships or his
hatreds。 What we do know of him raises our esteem。 Though
convivial； he was temperate； though genial； he was a silent
observer； quiet in his manners； modest in his intercourse with the
world； walking with downcast eye； but letting nothing escape his
notice。 He believed in friendship； and kept his friends to the
end； and was stained neither by envy nor by pride；as frank as he
was affectionate； as gentle as he was witty。 Living with princes
and nobles； he never descended to gross adulation； and never wrote
a line of approval of the usurpation of Henry IV。； although his
bread depended on Henry's favor； and he was also the son of the
king's earliest and best friend。 He was not a religious man； nor
was he an immoral man； judged by the standard of his age。 He
probably was worldly； as he lived in courts。 We do not see in him
the stern virtues of Dante or Milton； nothing of that moral
earnestness which marked the only other great man with whom he was
contemporary；he who is called the 〃morning star〃 of the
Reformation。 But then we know nothing about him which calls out
severe reprobation。 He was patriotic； and had the confidence of
his sovereign； else he would not have been employed on important
missions。 And the sweetness of his character may be inferred from
his long and tender friendship with Gower； whom some in that age
considered the greater poet。 He was probably luxurious in his
habits； but intemperate use of wine he detested and avoided。 He
was portly in his person； but refinement marked his features。 He
was a gentleman； according to the severest code of chivalric
excellence； always a favorite with ladies； and equally admired by
the knights and barons of a brilliant court。 No poet was ever more
honored in his life or lamented in his death； as his beautiful
monument in Westminster Abbey would seem to attest。 That monument
is the earliest that was erected to the memory of a poet in that
Pantheon of English men of rank and genius； and it will probably be
as long preserved as any of those sculptured urns and animated
busts which seek to keep alive the memory of the illustrious dead；
of those who； though dead； yet speak to all future generations。
AUTHORITIES。
Chaucer's own works； especially the Canterbury Tales； publications
of the Chaucer Society； Pauli's History of England； ordinary
Histories of England which relate to the reigns of Edward III。 and
Richard II。； especially Green's History of the English People； Life
of Chaucer； by William Godwin （4 volumes； London； 1804）； Tyrwhitt's
edition of Canterbury Tales； Speglet's edition of Chaucer； Warton's
History of English Poetry； St。 Palaye's History of Chivalry；
Chaucer's England； by Matthew Browne （London； 1869）； Sir Harris
Nicholas's Life of Chaucer； The Riches of Chaucer； by Charles
Cowden Clarke； Morley's Life of Chaucer。 The latest work is a Life
and Criticism of Chaucer； by Adolphus William Ward。 There is also
a Guide to Chaucer； by H。 G。 Fleary。 See also Skeat's collected
edition of Chaucer's Works； brought out under the auspices of the
Early English Text Society。
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS。
A。D。 1446…1506。
MARITIME DISCOVERIES。
About thirteen hundred years ago； when Attila the Hun； called 〃the
scourge of God；〃 was overrunning the falling empire of the Romans；
some of the noblest citizens of the small cities of the Adriatic
fled； with their families and effects； to the inaccessible marshes
and islands at the extremity of that sea； and formed a permanent
settlement。 They became fishermen and small traders。 In process
of time they united their islands together by bridges； and laid the
foundation of a mercantile state。 Thither resorted the merchants
of Mediaeval Europe to make exchanges。 Thus Venice became rich and
powerful； and in the twelfth century it was one of the prosperous
states of Europe； ruled by an oligarchy o