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legislators and the popes themselves。 The idea of a theocracy was
the basis of Calvin's system of legislation； as it was that of Leo
I。 He desired that the temporal power should rule； in the name of
God；should be the arm by which spiritual principles should be
enforced。 He did not object to the spiritual domination of the
popes； so far as it was in accordance with the word of God。 He
wished to realize the grand idea which the Middle Ages sought for；
but sought for in vain；that the Church must always remain the
mother of spiritual principles； but he objected to the exercise of
temporal power by churchmen； as well as to the interference of the
temporal power in matters purely spiritual；virtually the doctrine
of Anselm and Becket。 But； unlike Becket； Calvin would not screen
clergymen accused of crime from temporal tribunals； he rather
sought the humiliation of the clergy in temporal matters。 He also
would destroy inequalities of rank； and do away with church
dignitaries； like bishops and deans and archdeacons； and he
instituted twice as many laymen as clergymen in ecclesiastical
assemblies。 But he gave to the clergy the exclusive right to
excommunicate； and to regulate the administration of the
sacraments。 He was himself a high…churchman in his spirit； both in
reference to the divine institution of the presbyterian form of
government and the ascendancy of the Church as a great power in the
world。
Calvin exercised a great influence on the civil polity of Geneva；
although it was established before he came to the city。 He
undertook to frame for the State a code of morals。 He limited the
freedom of the citizens； and turned the old democratic constitution
into an oligarchy。 The general assembly； which met twice a year；
nominated syndics； or judges； but nothing was proposed in the
general assembly which had not previously been considered in the
council of the Two Hundred； and nothing in the latter which had not
been brought before the council of Sixty； nor even in this； which
had not been approved by the lesser council。 The four syndics；
with their council of sixteen； had power of life and death； and the
whole public business of the state was in their hands。 The supreme
legislation was in the council of Two Hundred； which was much
influenced by ecclesiastics； or the consistory。 If a man not
forbidden to take the Sacrament neglected to receive it； he was
condemned to banishment for a year。 One was condemned to do public
penance if he omitted a Sunday service。 The military garrison was
summoned to prayers twice a day。 The judges punished severely all
profanity； as blasphemy。 A mason was put in prison three days for
simply saying； when falling from a building； that it must be the
work of the Devil。 A young girl who insulted her mother was
publicly punished and kept on bread…and…water； and a peasant…boy
who called his mother a devil was publicly whipped。 A child who
struck his mother was beheaded； adultery was punished with death； a
woman was publicly scourged because she sang common songs to a
psalm…tune； and another because she dressed herself； in a frolic；
in man's attire。 Brides were not allowed to wear wreaths in their
bonnets； gamblers were set in the pillory； and card…playing and
nine…pins were denounced as gambling。 Heresy was punished with
death； and in sixty years one hundred and fifty people were burned
to death； in Geneva； for witchcraft。 Legislation extended to dress
and private habits； many innocent amusements were altogether
suppressed； also holidays and theatrical exhibitions。
Excommunication was as much dreaded as in the Mediaeval church。
In regard to the worship of God； Calvin was opposed to splendid
churches； and to all ritualism。 He retained psalm…singing； but
abolished the organ； he removed the altar； the crucifix； and
muniments from the churches； and closed them during the week…days；
unless the minister was present。 He despised what we call art；
especially artistic music； nor did he have much respect for
artificial sermons； or the art of speaking。 He himself preached ex
tempore； nor is there evidence that he ever wrote a sermon。
Respecting the Eucharist； Calvin took a middle course between
Luther and Zwingli；believing neither in the actual presence of
Christ in the consecrated bread； nor regarding it as a mere symbol；
but a means by which divine grace is imparted； a mirror in which we
may contemplate Christ。 Baptism he considered only as an
indication of divine grace； and not essential to salvation； thereby
differing from Luther and the Catholic church。 Yet he was as
strenuous in maintaining these sacraments as a Catholic priest； and
made excommunication as fearful a weapon as it was in the Middle
Ages。 For admission to the Lord's Supper； and thus to the
membership of the visible Church； it would seem that his
requirements were not rigid； but rather very simple； like those of
the primitive Christians；namely； faith in God and faith in
Christ； without any subtile and metaphysical creeds； such as one
might expect from his inexorable theological deductions。 But he
would resort to excommunication as a discipline； as the only weapon
which the Church could use to bind its members together； and which
had been used from the beginning； yet he would temper severity with
mildness and charity； since only God is able to judge the heart。
And herein he departed from the customs of the Middle Ages； and did
not regard the excommunicated as lost； but to be prayed for by the
faithful。 No one； he maintained； should be judged as deserving
eternal death who was still in the hands of God。 He made a broad
distinction between excommunication and anathema； the latter； he
maintained； should never； or very rarely； be pronounced； since it
takes away the hope of forgiveness； and consigns one to the wrath
of God and the power of Satan。 He regarded the Sacrament of the
Lord's Supper as a means to help manifold infirmities；as a time
of meditation for beholding Christ the crucified； as confirming
reconciliation with God； as a visible sign of the body of Christ；
recognizing his actual but spiritual presence。 Luther recognized
the bodily presence of Christ in the Eucharist； while he rejected
transubstantiation and the idea of worshipping the consecrated
wafer as the real God。 This difference in the opinion of the
reformers as to the Eucharist led to bitter quarrels and
controversies； and divided the Protestants。 Calvin pursued a
middle and moderate course； and did much to harmonize the
Protestant churches。 He always sought peace and moderation； and
his tranquillizing measures were not pleasant to the Catholics； who
wished to see divisions among their enemies。
Calvin had a great dislike of ceremonies； festivals； holidays； and
the like。 For images he had an aversion amounting to horror。
Christmas was the only festival he retained。 He was even
slanderously accused of wishing to abolish the Sabbath； the
observance of which he inculcated with the strictness of the
Puritans。 He introduced congregational singing； but would not
allow the ear or the eye to be distracted。 The music was simple；
dispensing with organs and instruments and all elaborate and
artistic display。 It is needless to say that this severe
simplicity of worship has nearly passed away； but it cannot be
doubted that the changes which the reformers made produced the
deepest impression on the people in a fervent and religious age。
The psalms and hymns of the reformers were composed in times of
great religious excitement。 Calvin was far behind Luther； who did
not separate the art of music from religion； but Calvin made a
divorce of art from public worship。 Indeed； the Reformation was
not favorable to art in any form except in sacred poetry； it
declared those truths which save the soul； rather than sought those
arts which adorn civilization。 Hence its churches were barren of
ornaments and symbols； and were cold and repulsive when the people
were not excited by religious truths。 Nor did they favor eloquence
in the ordinary meaning of that word。 Pulpit eloquence was simple；
direct； and without rhetorical devices； seeking effect not in
gestures and postures and modulated voice； but earnest appeals to
the heart and conscience。 The great Catholic preachers of the
eighteenth centurylike Bossuet and Bourdaloue and Massillon
surpassed the Protestants as rhetoricians。
The simplicity which marked the worship of God as established by
Calvin was also a feature in his system of church government。 He
dispensed with bishops； archdeacons； deans； and the like。 In his
eyes every man who preached the word was a presbyter； or elder； and
every presbyter was a bishop。 A deacon was an officer to take care
of the poor； not to preach。 And it was necessary that a minister
should have a double call；both an inward call and an outward
one；or an election by th