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proposed roads to freedom(通往自由之路)-第4章

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out in Paris; and in March it spread to Germany。 Fear of the revolution led 

the   Brussels   Government   to   expel   Marx   from   Belgium;   but   the   German 

revolution      made     it  possible   for   him   to   return   to  his   own    country。    In 

Germany he again edited a paper; which again led him into a conflict with 

the   authorities;   increasing   in   severity   as   the   reaction   gathered   force。   In 

June; 1849; his paper was suppressed; and he was expelled from Prussia。 

He   returned   to   Paris;   but   was   expelled   from   there   also。  This   led   him   to 

settle   in   Englandat   that   time   an   asylum  for   friends   of   freedomand   in 

England; with only brief intervals for purposes of agitation; he continued 

to live until his death in 1883。 

       '1'    Chief     among      these    were     Fourier     and     Saint…Simon;       who 

constructed        somewhat        fantastic      Socialistic     ideal     commonwealths。 

Proudhon; with whom Marx had some not wholly friendly relations; is to 

be   regarded   as   a   forerunner   of   the   Anarchists   rather   than   of   orthodox 

Socialism。 

     '2' Marx mentions the English Socialists with praise in ‘‘The Poverty 

of Philosophy'' (1847)。 They; like him; tend to base their arguments upon a 



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Ricardian   theory   of   value;   but   they   have   not   his   scope   or   erudition   or 

scientific     breadth。    Among      them   may   be     mentioned      Thomas      Hodgskin 

(1787…1869);        originally    an    officer   in  the   Navy;     but   dismissed      for  a 

pamphlet   critical   of   the   methods   of   naval   discipline;   author   of   ‘‘Labour 

Defended Against the Claims of Capital'' (1825) and other works; William 

Thompson         (1785…1833);        author    of   ‘‘Inquiry     into   the    Principles     of 

Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness'' (1824); and 

‘‘Labour       Rewarded''       (1825);     and     Piercy    Ravenstone;        from     whom 

Hodgskin's ideas are largely derived。 Perhaps more important than any of 

these was Robert Owen。 

       The   bulk   of   his   time   was   occupied   in   the   composition   of   his   great 

book;  ‘‘Capital。'''3'  His other important   work during   his later   years   was 

the formation and spread of the International Working Men's Association。 

From  1849   onward   the   greater   part   of   his   time   was   spent   in   the   British 

Museum;        accumulating;       with    German      patience;     the   materials    for   his 

terrific   indictment   of   capitalist   society;   but   he   retained   his   hold   on   the 

International Socialist movement。 In several countries he had sons…in…law 

as    lieutenants;     like  Napoleon's       brothers;    and    in  the   various     internal 

contests that arose his will generally prevailed。 

       '3' The first and most important volume appeared in 1867; the other 

two volumes were published posthumously (1885 and 1894)。 

       The most essential of Marx's doctrines may be reduced to three: first; 

what is called the material… istic interpretation of history; second; the law 

of the concentration of capital; and; third; the class…war。 

     1。 The Materialistic Interpretation of History。 Marx holds that in the 

main   all   the   phenomena   of   human   society   have   their   origin   in   material 

conditions;      and   these    he   takes   to  be   embodied      in   economic      systems。 

Political   constitutions;   laws;   religions;   philosophiesall   these   he   regards 

as;   in   their   broad   outlines;   expressions   of   the   economic   regime   in   the 

society   that   gives   rise   to   them。   It   would   be   unfair   to   represent   him   as 

maintaining       that   the   conscious      economic      motive     is  the   only   one    of 

importance; it is rather that economics molds character and opinion; and is 

thus the prime source of much that appears in consciousness to have no 

connection       with    them。    He    applies    his   doctrine    in   particular    to   two 



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revolutions; one in the past; the other in the future。 The revolution in the 

past is that of the bourgeoisie against feudalism; which finds its expression; 

according   to   him;   particularly   in   the   French   Revolution。   The   one   in   the 

future   is   the   revolution   of   the   wage…   earners;   or   proletariat;   against   the 

bourgeoisie; which is to establish the Socialist Commonwealth。 The whole 

movement   of   history   is   viewed   by   him   as   necessary;   as   the   effect         of 

material     causes    operating     upon    human      beings。    He   does    not   so  much 

advocate the Socialist revolution as predict it。 He holds; it is true; that it 

will be beneficent; but he is much more concerned to prove that it must 

inevitably come。 The same sense of necessity is visible in his exposition of 

the   evils   of   the   capitalist   system。   He   does   not   blame   capitalists   for   the 

cruelties of which he shows them to have been guilty; he merely points out 

that   they   are   under   an   inherent   necessity   to   behave   cruelly   so   long   as 

private ownership of land and capital continues。 But their tyranny will not 

last forever; for it generates the forces that must in the end overthrow it。 

     2。 The Law  of the   Concentration of   Capital。 Marx pointed out   that 

capitalist   undertakings   tend   to   grow   larger   and   larger。   He   foresaw   the 

substitution of trusts for free competition; and predicted that the number of 

capitalist enterprises must diminish as the magnitude of single enterprises 

increased。  He   supposed   that   this   process   must   involve   a  diminution;  not 

only   in   the   number   of   businesses;   but   also   in   the   number   of   capitalists。 

Indeed; he usually spoke as though each business were owned by a single 

man。 Accordingly; he expected that men would be continually driven from 

the    ranks   of   the  capitalists    into   those   of  the   proletariat;    and   that   the 

capitalists;   in   the   course   of   time;   would   grow   numerically   weaker   and 

weaker。      He    applied    this   principle    not    only   to   industry    but    also   to 

agriculture。 He expected to find the landowners growing fewer and fewer 

while their estates grew larger and larger。 This process was to make more 

and more glaring the evils and injustices of the capitalist system; and to 

stimulate more and more the forces of opposition。 

     3。 The Class War。Marx conceives the wage… earner and the capitalist 

in a sharp antithesis。 He imagines that every man is; or must soon become; 

wholly   the   one   or   wholly   the   other。   The   wage…   earner;   who   possesses 

nothing;   is   exploited   by   the   capitalists;   who   possess   everything。  As   the 



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capitalist system works itself out and its nature becomes   more clear; the 

opposition of bourgeoisie and proletariat becomes more and more marked。 

The two classes; since they have antagonistic interests; are forced into a 

class   war   which   generates   within   the  capitalist   regime   internal   forces   of 

disruption。   The   working   men   learn   gradually   to   combine   against   their 

exploiters;   first   locally;   then nationally;   and   at   last   internationally。  When 

they   have   learned     to   combine   internationally   they   must   be      victorious。 

They will then decree that all land and capital shall be owned in common; 

exploitation will cease; the tyranny of the owners of wealth will no longer 

be possible;   there  will  no   longer  be any  division   of society  into   classes; 

and all men will be free。 

     All these ideas are already contained in the ‘‘Communist Manifesto;'' a 

work     of   the  most    amazing     vigor    and   force;   setting   forth   with   terse 

compression   the   titanic   forces   of   the     world;   their   epic   battle;   and   the 

inevitable     consummation。         This   work     is  of   such    importance      in  the 

development   of   Socialism  and   gives   such   an   admirable   statement   of   the 

doctrines set forth at greater length and with more pedantry in ‘‘Capital;'' 

that    its  salient  passages     must    be   known     by   anyone     who    wishes     to 

understand      the   hold   which     Marxian     Socialism     has   acquired  
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