按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
out in Paris； and in March it spread to Germany。 Fear of the revolution led
the Brussels Government to expel Marx from Belgium； but the German
revolution made it possible for him to return to his own country。 In
Germany he again edited a paper； which again led him into a conflict with
the authorities； increasing in severity as the reaction gathered force。 In
June； 1849； his paper was suppressed； and he was expelled from Prussia。
He returned to Paris； but was expelled from there also。 This led him to
settle in Englandat that time an asylum for friends of freedomand in
England； with only brief intervals for purposes of agitation； he continued
to live until his death in 1883。
＇1＇ Chief among these were Fourier and Saint…Simon； who
constructed somewhat fantastic Socialistic ideal commonwealths。
Proudhon； with whom Marx had some not wholly friendly relations； is to
be regarded as a forerunner of the Anarchists rather than of orthodox
Socialism。
＇2＇ Marx mentions the English Socialists with praise in ‘‘The Poverty
of Philosophy'' （1847）。 They； like him； tend to base their arguments upon a
11
… Page 12…
PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
Ricardian theory of value； but they have not his scope or erudition or
scientific breadth。 Among them may be mentioned Thomas Hodgskin
（1787…1869）； originally an officer in the Navy； but dismissed for a
pamphlet critical of the methods of naval discipline； author of ‘‘Labour
Defended Against the Claims of Capital'' （1825） and other works； William
Thompson （1785…1833）； author of ‘‘Inquiry into the Principles of
Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness'' （1824）； and
‘‘Labour Rewarded'' （1825）； and Piercy Ravenstone； from whom
Hodgskin's ideas are largely derived。 Perhaps more important than any of
these was Robert Owen。
The bulk of his time was occupied in the composition of his great
book； ‘‘Capital。''＇3＇ His other important work during his later years was
the formation and spread of the International Working Men's Association。
From 1849 onward the greater part of his time was spent in the British
Museum； accumulating； with German patience； the materials for his
terrific indictment of capitalist society； but he retained his hold on the
International Socialist movement。 In several countries he had sons…in…law
as lieutenants； like Napoleon's brothers； and in the various internal
contests that arose his will generally prevailed。
＇3＇ The first and most important volume appeared in 1867； the other
two volumes were published posthumously （1885 and 1894）。
The most essential of Marx's doctrines may be reduced to three： first；
what is called the material… istic interpretation of history； second； the law
of the concentration of capital； and； third； the class…war。
1。 The Materialistic Interpretation of History。 Marx holds that in the
main all the phenomena of human society have their origin in material
conditions； and these he takes to be embodied in economic systems。
Political constitutions； laws； religions； philosophiesall these he regards
as； in their broad outlines； expressions of the economic regime in the
society that gives rise to them。 It would be unfair to represent him as
maintaining that the conscious economic motive is the only one of
importance； it is rather that economics molds character and opinion； and is
thus the prime source of much that appears in consciousness to have no
connection with them。 He applies his doctrine in particular to two
12
… Page 13…
PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
revolutions； one in the past； the other in the future。 The revolution in the
past is that of the bourgeoisie against feudalism； which finds its expression；
according to him； particularly in the French Revolution。 The one in the
future is the revolution of the wage… earners； or proletariat； against the
bourgeoisie； which is to establish the Socialist Commonwealth。 The whole
movement of history is viewed by him as necessary； as the effect of
material causes operating upon human beings。 He does not so much
advocate the Socialist revolution as predict it。 He holds； it is true； that it
will be beneficent； but he is much more concerned to prove that it must
inevitably come。 The same sense of necessity is visible in his exposition of
the evils of the capitalist system。 He does not blame capitalists for the
cruelties of which he shows them to have been guilty； he merely points out
that they are under an inherent necessity to behave cruelly so long as
private ownership of land and capital continues。 But their tyranny will not
last forever； for it generates the forces that must in the end overthrow it。
2。 The Law of the Concentration of Capital。 Marx pointed out that
capitalist undertakings tend to grow larger and larger。 He foresaw the
substitution of trusts for free competition； and predicted that the number of
capitalist enterprises must diminish as the magnitude of single enterprises
increased。 He supposed that this process must involve a diminution； not
only in the number of businesses； but also in the number of capitalists。
Indeed； he usually spoke as though each business were owned by a single
man。 Accordingly； he expected that men would be continually driven from
the ranks of the capitalists into those of the proletariat； and that the
capitalists； in the course of time； would grow numerically weaker and
weaker。 He applied this principle not only to industry but also to
agriculture。 He expected to find the landowners growing fewer and fewer
while their estates grew larger and larger。 This process was to make more
and more glaring the evils and injustices of the capitalist system； and to
stimulate more and more the forces of opposition。
3。 The Class War。Marx conceives the wage… earner and the capitalist
in a sharp antithesis。 He imagines that every man is； or must soon become；
wholly the one or wholly the other。 The wage… earner； who possesses
nothing； is exploited by the capitalists； who possess everything。 As the
13
… Page 14…
PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
capitalist system works itself out and its nature becomes more clear； the
opposition of bourgeoisie and proletariat becomes more and more marked。
The two classes； since they have antagonistic interests； are forced into a
class war which generates within the capitalist regime internal forces of
disruption。 The working men learn gradually to combine against their
exploiters； first locally； then nationally； and at last internationally。 When
they have learned to combine internationally they must be victorious。
They will then decree that all land and capital shall be owned in common；
exploitation will cease； the tyranny of the owners of wealth will no longer
be possible； there will no longer be any division of society into classes；
and all men will be free。
All these ideas are already contained in the ‘‘Communist Manifesto；'' a
work of the most amazing vigor and force； setting forth with terse
compression the titanic forces of the world； their epic battle； and the
inevitable consummation。 This work is of such importance in the
development of Socialism and gives such an admirable statement of the
doctrines set forth at greater length and with more pedantry in ‘‘Capital；''
that its salient passages must be known by anyone who wishes to
understand the hold which Marxian Socialism has acquired