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author of the famous sophism against motion。 'If
any body be moved； it is moved in the place where
it is； or in a place where it is not； for nothing can
act or suffer where it is not； and therefore there is
no such thing as motion。' 〃
By Astle：
〃The General History of Polybius originally
contained forty books； but the first five only； with
some extracts or fragments； are transmitted to us。〃
By Anthon：
〃Polybius； an eminent Greek historian； born
about； B。 C。 203。 Polybius gave to the world various
historical writings； which are entirely lost with
the exception of his General History。 It embraced
a period of 53 years。 Of the forty books which it
originally comprehended； time has spared only the
first five entire。 Of the rest； as far as the seventeenth；
we have merely fragments though of considerable
size。 Of the remaining books we have
nothing left except what is found in two merger
abridgments which the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus；
in the tenth century caused to be
made of the whole work。〃
From Astle：
〃Dionysius Halicarnassensis wrote twenty books
of Roman antiquities； extending from the siege of
Troy； to the Punic war A。 U。 C。 488； but only
eleven of them are now remaining； which reach no
further than the year of Rome 312。〃
From Anthon：
〃He was born in the first century B。 C。 His
principal work was 'Roman Antiquities。' It originally
consisted of twenty books； of which the first
ten remain entire。 Dionysius wrote for the Greeks；
and his object was to relieve them from the mortification
which they felt at being conquered by a race
of barbarians； as they considered the Romans to be。
And this he endeavored to effect by twisting and
forging testimonies； and botching up the old legends；
so as to make out a prima facie proof of the Greek
origin of the city of Rome。 Valuable additions
were made in 1816； by Mai； from an old MSS。〃
By Astle：
〃Appian is said to have written the Roman
History in twenty…four books； but the greatest
part of the works of that author is lost。〃
By Anthon：
〃He was the author of a Roman History in
twenty…four books which no longer exist entire；
the parts missing have been supplied but was not
written by Appian but is a mere compilation from
Plutarch's Lives of Crassus and Antony。〃
By Astle：
〃Dion Cassius wrote eighty books of history；
but only twenty…five are remaining； with some
fragments； and an epitome of the last twenty by
Xiphilinus。〃
By Anthon：
〃His true name was Cassius； born A。 D。 155；
we have fragments remaining of the first thirty…
six books； they comprehend a period from B。 C。 65
to B。 C。 10；they were found by Mai in two Vatican
MSS。； which contain a sylloge or collection
made by Maximus Planudes （who lived in the
fourteenth century。 He was the first Greek that
made use of the Arabic numerals as they are
called）。〃
Mr。 Astle further observes：
〃The Emperor Tacitus ordered ten copies of the
works of his relation； the historian； to be made
every year which he sent into the different provinces
of the empire； and yet； notwithstanding his
endeavours to perpetuate these inestimable works；
they were buried in oblivion for many centuries。
Since the restoration of learning an ancient MSS。
was discovered in a monastery in Westphalia；
which contained the most valuable part of his annals；
but in this unique manuscript； part of the
fifth； seventh； ninth and tenth books are deficient；
as are part of the eleventh； and the latter part of the
sixteenth。 This MSS。 was procured by that great
restorer of learning Pope Leo X。； under whose patronage
it was printed at Rome in 1515； he afterwards
deposited it in the Vatican library； where it
is still preserved。 Thus posterity is probably indebted
to the above magnificent Pontiff； for the
most valuable part of the works of this inimitable
historian。〃
Accounts which differentiate in their descriptive details
of questioned ink…written fragments of antiquity
and on the genuineness or authenticity of which rests
the truth or falsity of ancient history or other literature；
serve to taint such remains with a certain degree
of suspicion and doubt。 When； however； in the light
of investigation； the materials of which they are composed
are found to approach closely the age they
purport to represent； then it is that such fragments
can be said to have fairly established their own identity。
Taylor asserts：
〃The remote antiquity of a manuscript is of ten
established by the peculiar circumstance of
its existing BENEATH another writing。 Some invaluable
manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures； and
not a few precious fragments of classic literature；
have been thus brought to light。
〃The age of a manuscript may often be ascertained
with little chance of error； by some such
indications as the following：the quality or
appearance of the INK； the nature of the material；
that is to say； whether it be soft leather； or parchment；
or the papyrus of Egypt； or the bombycine
paper； for these materials succeeded each other； in
common use； at periods that are well known；
the peculiar form； size； and character of the writing；
for a regular progression in the modes of writing
may be traced by abundant evidence through every
age from the remotest times；the style of the ornaments
or illuminations； as they are termed； often
serves to indicate the age of the book which they decorate。
〃From such indications as these； more or less
definite and certain； ancient manuscripts； now extant；
are assigned to various periods； extending
from the sixteenth； to the fourth century of the
Christian era； or perhaps； in one or two instances；
to the third or second。 Very few can claim an antiquity
so high as the fourth century； but not a few
are safely attributed to the seventh； and a great
proportion of those extant were unquestionably
executed in the tenth； while many belong to the
following four hundred years。 It is； however； to
be observed； that some manuscripts； executed at so
late a time as the thirteenth； or even the fifteenth
century； afford clear internal evidence that； by a
single remove only； the text they contain claims a
REAL antiquity； higher than that even of the oldest
existing copy of the same work。 For these older
copies sometimes prove； by the peculiar nature of
the corruptions which have crept into the text； that
they have been derived through a long series of
copies； while perhaps the text of the more modern
manuscripts possesses such a degree of purity and
freedom from all the usual consequences of frequent
transcription； as to make it manifest that the copy
from which it was taken； was so ancient as not to
be far distant from the time of the first publication
of the work。〃
CHAPTER V。
REVIVAL OF INK。
THE DISAPPEARANCE AND PRESERVATION OF INK WRITINGS；
AS ESTIMATED BY LA CROIXCOMMENTS OF
OTHER WRITERSDE VINNE'S INTERESTING EXPLANATIONS
OF THE STATUS QUO OF MANUSCRIPT WRITINGS
DURING THE DARK AGES WHICH PRECEDED THE INVENTION
OF PRINTINGPRICES PAID FOR BOOKS IN
ANCIENT TIMESLIMITATIONS OF HANDWRITING AND
HANDWRITING MATERIALS AT THE BEGINNING OF
THE FIFTH CENTURYWHO CONTROLLED THE RECORDS
ABOUT THEMINVENTION OF THE QUILL
PENTHE CAUSE OF INCREASED FLUIDITY OF
INKSORIGIN OF THE SECRETACHARACTER OF
INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THEMIMPROVEMENT
OF BLACK INKS IN THE EIGHTH CENTURY AND EMPLOYMENT
OF POMEGRANITE INK。
LA CROIX' preface to his 〃Science and Literature of
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance；〃 refers to the
Dark Ages：
〃In the beginning of the Middle Ages； at the
commencement of the fifth century； the Barbarians
made an inroad upon the old world； their renewed
invasions crushed out； in the course of a few years；
the Greek and Roman civilization； and everywhere
darkness succeeded to light。 The religion of Jesus
Christ was alone capable of resisting this barbarian
invasion； and science and literature； together with
the arts； disappeared from the face of the earth；
taking refuge in the churches and monasteries。 It
was there that they were preserved as a sacred deposit；
and it was thence that they emerged when
Christianity had renovated pagan society。 But
centuries and centuries elapsed before the sum of
human knowledge was equal to what it had been at
the fall of the Roman empire。 A new society；
moreover； was needed for the new efforts of human
intelligence as it resumed its rights。 Schools and
universities were founded under the auspices of the
clergy and of the religious corporations； and thus
science and literature were enabled to emerge from
their tombs。 Europe； amidst the tumultuous conflicts
of the policy which made and unmade kingdoms；
witnessed a general revival of the scholastic
zeal； poets； orators； novelists； and writers increased
in