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witnessed a general revival of the scholastic
zeal； poets； orators； novelists； and writers increased
in numbers and grew in favour； savants； philosophers；
chemists and alchemists； mathematicians
and astronomers； travellers and naturalists； were
awakened； so to speak； by the life…giving breath of
the Middle Ages； and great scientific discoveries
and admirable works on every imaginable subject
showed that the genius of modern society was not
a whit inferior to that of antiquity。 Printing； was
invented； and with that brilliant discovery； the Middle
Ages； which had accomplished their work of
social renovation； made way for the Renaissance；
which scattered abroad in profusion the prolific and
brilliant creations of Art； Science； and Literature。〃
This author to some extent discredits himself； however；
p。 455； where he remarks：
〃Long before the invasions of the Barbarians
the histories written by Greek and Latin authors
concerning the annals of the ancient peoples had
been falling into disfavor。 Even the best of them
were little read； for the Christians felt but slight
interest in these pagan narratives； and that is why
works relating to the history of antiquity were already
so scarce。〃
Another authority writing on the same subject discusses
it from a different standpoint； remarking：
〃As in the middle ages invention busied itself
with instruments of torture； and as in our days it
is taken up almost as much with the destructive engines
of war as with the productive arts of peace；
so in those early ages it applied itself to the fabrication
of idols； to the mechanism and theatrical
contrivances for mysteries and religious ceremonies。
There was then no desire to communicate
discoveries； science was a sort of freemasonry；
and silence was effectually secured by priestly
anathemas； men of science were as jealous of one
another as they were of all other classes of society。
If we wish to form a clear picture of this earliest
stage of civilization； an age which represents at
once the naivete of childhood and the suspicious
reticence of senility； we must turn our eyes to the
priest； on the one hand； claiming as his own all art
and science； and commanding respect by his contemptuous
silence； and； on the other hand； to the
mechanic plying the loom； extracting the Tyrian
dye； practising chemistry； though ignorant of its
very name； despised and oppressed； and only tolerated
when he furnished Religion with her trappings
or War with arms。 Thus the growth of
chemistry was slow； and by reason of its backwardness
it was longer than any other art in ridding
itself of the leading…strings of magic and
astrology。 Practical discoveries must have been
made many times without science acquiring thereby
any new fact。 For to prevent a new discovery from
being lost there must be such a combination of
favorable circumstances as was rare in that age and
for many succeeding ages。 There must be publicity；
and publicity is of quite recent growth； the
application of the discovery must be not only possible
but obvious； as satisfying some want。 But
wants are only felt as civilization progresses。 Nor
is that all； for a practical discovery to become a
scientific fact it must serve to demonstrate the error
of one hypothesis； and to suggest a new one； better
fitted for the synthesis of existing facts。 But
（some） old beliefs are proverbially obstinate and
virulent in their opposition to newer and truer
theories which are destined to eject and replace
them。 To sum up； even in our own day； chemistry
rests on a less sound basis than either physics； which
had the advantage of originating as late as the 17th
century； or astronomy； which dates from the time
when the Chaldean shepherd had sufficiently provided
for his daily wants to find leisure for gazing
into the starry Heavens。〃
The observations of a still earlier commentator are of
the same general nature。 He says：
〃In the first ages of Christianity； when the
fathers of the Church； the Jews； and the Heathen
philosophers were so warmly engaged in controversy；
there is reason to believe that pious frauds
were not uncommon： and that when one party suspected
forgeries； instead of an attempt at confutation；
which might have been difficult； they had
recourse perhaps to a countermine： and either invented
altogether； or eked out some obscure traditional
scraps by the embellishments of fancy。
When we consider； amongst many literary impositions
of later times； that Psalmanazar's history of
Formosa was； even in this enlightened age and
country （England； about 1735）； considered by our
most learned men as unquestionably authentic； till
the confession of the author discovered the secret；
I think it is not difficult to conceive how forgeries
of remote events； before the invention of printing
and the general diffusion of knowledge might gain
an authority； and especially with the zealous； hardly
inferior to that of the most genuine history。〃
De Vinne； however； in his 〃Invention of Printing；〃
New York； 1878； best explains the status quo of those
times； relative not only to book （MSS。） making； and
methods of circulation； but the causes which led up to
their eventual disappearance and the literary darkness
which ensued。 His remarks are so pertinent
that they are quoted at length：
〃The civilization of ancient Rome did not require
printing。 If all the processes of typography
had been revealed to its scholars the art would not
have been used。 The wants of readers and writers
were abundantly supplied by the pen。 Papyrus
paper was cheap； and scribes were numerous； Rome
had more booksellers than it needed； and books
were made faster than they could be sold。 The
professional scribes were educated slaves； who； fed
and clothed at nominal expense； and organized under
the direction of wealthy publishers； were made
so efficient in the production of books； that typography；
in an open competition； could have offered few advantages。
〃Our knowledge of the Roman organization of
labor in the field of bookmaking is not as precise as
could be wished； but the frequent notices of books；
copyists and publishers； made by many authors
during the first century； teach us that books
were plentiful。 Horace； the elegant and fastidious
man of letters； complained that his books were too
common； and that they were sometimes found in
the hands of vulgar snobs for whose entertainment
they were not written。 Martial； the jovial man of
the world； boasted that his books of stinging epigrams
were to be found in everybody's hands or
pockets。 Books were read not only in the libraries；
but at the baths； in the porticoes of houses； at
private dinners and in mixed assemblies。 The
business of bookmaking was practised by too many
people； and some were incompetent。 Lucian； who
had a keen perception of pretense in every form；
ridicules the publishers as ignoramuses。 Strabo；
who probably wrote illegibly； says that the books
of booksellers were incorrect。
〃The price of books made by slave labor was
necessarily low。 Martial says that his first book of
epigrams was sold in plain binding for six sesterces；
about twenty…four cents of American money； the
same book in sumptuous binding was valued at five
denarii； about eighty cents。 He subsequently complained
that his thirteenth book was sold for only
four sesterces； about sixteen cents。 He frankly
admits that half of this sum was profit； but intimates；
somewhat ungraciously； that the publisher Tryphon
gave him too small a share。 Of the merits of this
old disagreement between the author and publisher
we have not enough of facts to justify an opinion。
We learn that some publishers； like Tryphon and
the brothers Sosii； acquired wealth； but there are
many indications that publishing was then； as it is
now； one of the most speculative kinds of business。
One writer chuckles over the unkind fate that sent
so many of the unsold books of rival authors from
the warehouses of the publisher； to the shops of
grocers and bakers； where they were used to wrap
up pastry and spices； another writer says that the
unsold stock of a bookseller was sometimes bought
by butchers and trunk makers。
〃The Romans not only had plenty of books but
they had a manuscript daily newspaper； the Acta
Diurna； which seems to have been a record of the
proceedings of the senate。 We do not know how
it was written； nor how it was published； but it
was frequently mentioned by contemporary writers
as the regular official medium for transmitting
intelligence。 It was sent to subscribers in distant
cities； and was； sometimes； read to an assembled
army。 Cicero mentions the Acta as a sheet in
which he expected to find the city news and gossip
about marriages and divorces。
〃With the decline of power in the Roman empire
came the decline of