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in the Celtic nature so far transcended the limits of
the island； and indeed of Great Britain； that Irish
missionaries and monks were soon found in the
chief religious centres of Gaul； Germany； Switzerland；
and North Italy； while foreigners found their
toilsome way to Ireland to learn Greek！ But less
prominence has been given to the artistic side of
this great reflex movement from West to East than
to the other two。 The simple facts attest that in
the seventh century； when our earliest existing
Irish MSS。 were written； we find not only a style
of writing （or indeed two） distinctive； national；
and of a high type of excellence； but also a school
of illumination which； in the combined lines of
mechanical accuracy and intricacy； of fertile invention
of form and figure and of striking arrangements
of colour； has never been surpassed。 And
this is in the seventh centurythe nadir of the rest
of Europe！
〃It is certain that Alcuin was trained in Hiberno…
Saxon calligraphy； so that we may be surprised to
find that the writing which； under Charles the Great；
he developed at Tours； bears hardly a trace of the
style to which he was accustomed。 En revanche；
in the ornamentation and illumination of the great
Carolingian volumes which have come down to our
times； we find those constant； persistent traces of
English and Irish work which we seek for in vain
in the plainer writing。
〃This minuscule superseded all others almost
throughout the empire of Charles the Great； and
during the ninth； tenth； and eleventh centuries
underwent very little modification。 Even in the two
next centuries； though it is subject to general
modification； national differences are hardly observable；
and we can only distinguish two large divisions；
the group of Northern Europe （England； North
France； Italy； and Spain）。 The two exceptions
are； that Germany； both in writing and painting；
has always stood apart； and lags behind the other
nations of Western Europe in its development； and
that England retains her Hiberno…Saxon hand till
after the Conquest of 1066。 It may be noted that
the twelfth century produced the finest writing ever
knowna large； free and flowing form of the minuscule
of Tours。 In the next century comes in the angular
Gothic hand； the difference between which and
the twelfth century hand may be fairly understood
by a comparison of ordinary German and Roman
type。 In the thirteenth； fourteenth； and fifteenth
centuries the writing of each century may be
discerned； while the general tendency is towards
complication； use of abbreviations and contractions；
and development of unessential parasitic forms of
letters。
〃The Book of Kells； the chief treasure of Trinity
College； Dublin； is so…called from having been
long preserved at the Monastery of Kells； founded
by Columba himself。 Stolen from thence； it eventually
passed into Archbishop Ussher's hands； and；
with other parts of his library； to Dublin。 The
volume contains the Four Gospels in Latin； ornamented
with extraordinary freedom； elaboration； and
beauty。 Written apparently in the seventh century；
it exhibits； both in form and colour； all the
signs of the full development and maturity of the
Irish style； and must of necessity have been preceded
by several generations of artistic workers；
who founded and improved this particular school
of art。 The following words of Professor Westwood；
who first drew attention to the peculiar excellences
of this volume； will justify tile terms made
use of above： 'This copy of the Gospels； traditionally
asserted to have belonged to Columba； is
unquestionably the most elaborately executed MS。
of early art now in existence； far excelling； in the
gigantic size of the letters in the frontispieces of
the Gospel； the excessive minuteness of the ornamental
details； the number of its decorations； the
fineness of the writing； and the endless variety of
initial capital letters with which every page is
ornamented； the famous Gospels of Lindisfarne in the
Cottonian Library。 But this MS。 is still more valuable
on account of the various pictorial representations
of different scenes in the life of our Saviour；
delineated in a style totally unlike that of every
other school。' 〃
CHAPTER VII。
EARLY MEDIAEVAL INK。
CONTROVERSIES AMONG HEBREW SCHOLARS RELATING TO
RITUALISTIC INKSTHE CLASS OF INKS EMPLOYED BY
THE FRENCH AND GERMAN JEWSCONVENTION OF
REPRESENTATIVES FROM JEWISH CENTERSSUBMISSION
OF THEIR DIFFERENCES TO MAIMONIDESHE DEFINES
TALMUDIC INKSIXTH CENTURY REFERENCE TO
〃GALL〃 INKASSERTION OF HOTZ…OSTERWALD THAT
EXCLUSIVE OF THE INDIAN INK； THE WRITING PIGMENTS
OF ANTIQUITY HAVE NEVER BEEN INVESTIGATEDHIS
BELIEF THAT YEAST FORMED A PORTION
OF THEMSOME OTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THIS
SUBJECTANCIENT FORMULAS ABOUT THE LEES OF
WINE IN INK…MAKINGCOMMENTS ON INK…MAKING BY
PLINYANCIENT FORMULA OF POMEGRANATE INK
SECRETA BY THE MONK THEOPHILUSWHAT THE；
THORN TREE HE REFERS TO REALLY ISIDENTITY OF
THE MYROBOLAM INK OF THE MOST REMOTE ANTIQUITY
WITH THE POMEGRANATE INK OF THE MIDDLE AGES
THE USES OF THE ACACIA TREE。
MOST of the documents of early mediaeval times
which remain to us containing ink in fairly good condition；
like charters； protocols； bulls； wills； diplomas；
and the like； were written or engrossed with 〃Indian〃
ink； in which respect we of the present century continue
to follow such established precedent when preparing
important written instruments。 It is not
remarkable； therefore； that the black inks of the
seventh； eighth； ninth and tenth centuries preserve
their blackness so much better than many belonging
to succeeding ages； including a new class of inks which
could not stand the test of time。
During the twelfth and first years of the thirteenth
centuries there were bitter controversies among Talmudic
（Hebrew） scholars； relative to the character of
the ink to be employed in the preparation of ritualistic
writings。 Nice distinctions were drawn as to the
real meaning of the word deyo as understood by the
Jews of the western part of the world； and the Arabic
word alchiber； as then understood nearer Palestine
and the other eastern countries。
The French Jews were using 〃tusche〃 （typical of
the 〃Indian〃 ink）； while the Germans were employing
〃pomegranate〃 and 〃gall〃 inks。 Representatives
from interested religious Jewish centers came
together and resolved to submit their differences for
final adjustment to Maimonides； born in Spain； A。 D。
1130 ； and died A。 D。 1204the then greatest living
Hebrew theologian and authority on biblical and
rabbinical laws。 Discarding all side issues； their differences
were seemingly incorporated into three questions
and thus propounded to him：
1。 Is the Talmudic deyo identical with alchiber？
2。 Of what ingredient should the Talmudic deyo
consist； if it is not the same as alchiber？
3。 Is alchiber to be understood as relating to the
gall…apple and chalkanthum （blue vitriol）？
To the first and third questions Maimonides declared
that deyo and alchiber were not identical；
and for the reasons that the Talmud declares deyo to
be a writing material which does not remain on the
surface on which it is placed and to be easily effaced。
On the other hand alchiber contains gum and other
things which causes it to adhere to the writing surface。
To the second question he affirmed that the Talmud
distinguishes a double kind of deyo； one containing
little or no gum and being a fluid； and the other referring
to 〃pulverized coal of the vine； soot from
burning olive oil； tar； rosin and honey； pressed into
plates to be dissolved in water when wanted for use。〃
Furthermore； while the Talmud excludes the use of
certain inks of which iron vitriol was one； it does not
exclude atramentum； （chalkanthum； copper vitriol）；
because the Talmud never speaks of it。 He insisted
that the Talmud requires a dry ink （deyo）。
As one of the last entries made in the Talmud （a
great collection of legal decisions by the ancient
Rabbis； Hebrew traditions； etc。； and believed to have
been commenced in the second century of the Christian
era） is claimed to belong to the sixth century；
mentions gall…apples and iron （copper） vitriol； it must
have referred to 〃gall〃 ink。 Further investigation
discloses the fact that such galls were of Chinese origin
and as we know they do not contain the necessary
ferment which the aleppo and other galls possess for
inducing a transformation of the tannin into gallic
acid； no complete union could therefore obtain。
Hence the value of this composition was limited until
the time when yeast and other materials were introduced
to overcome its deficiencies。
Hotz…Osterwald of Zurich； antiquarian and scholar；
has asserted that with the exception of the carbon
inks employed on papyrus； the writing pigments of