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inks employed on papyrus； the writing pigments of
antiquity and the Middle Ages have scarcely been
investigated。 The dark to light…brown pigment；
hitherto a problem； universally used on parchment；
he contends upon historical； chemical and microscopic
evidence is identical with oeno…cyanin and was prepared
for the most part from yeast； and was first
employed as a pigment。 Contrary to the general opinion
it contains no iron； except frequently accidental
traces； and after its appearance in Greece in the third
century； it formed almost exclusively the ink of the
ancient manuscripts； until displaced by the gallate
inks； said to have been introduced by the
Arabians。 These accidental traces of iron were due
to the employment of iron vessels in the making of
the ink。
My own observations in this direction confirm and
establish the fact that it was the custom in the early
centuries of the Christian era to utilize yeast or an
analogous compound as part of the composition of ink；
to which was added sepia； or the rind of the pomegranate
apple previously dissolved by heat in alkaline
solutions。
This analogous compound was probably the material
procured from wine lees （dregs）； deposited after fermentation
has commenced； and which after considerable
application of heat yields not only most of the
tannin contained in the stones and fruit stalks； but a
viscid compound characteristic of gelatine and of a
red…purple color which in course of time changes to
brown。
Bloxam says that the coloring matter of grapes and
of red wine appears to be 〃cyanin。〃
One of the methods of treating wine lees； as translated
in the eighteenth century from an old Italian
secreta； is sufficiently curious to partly quote：
〃Dry the Lees （dregs） of wine with a gentle fire
and fill with them two third of a large earthen Retort；
place this retort in a reverberatory furnace； and
fitting it to a large receiver； give a small fire to it to
heat the Retort by degrees； and drive forth an insipid
phlegm； when vapours begin to rise； you must
take out the phlegm and luting carefully the junctures
of your vessels； quicken the fire little by little
until you find the receiver filled with white clouds；
continue it in this condition； and you perceive the
receiver to cool； raise the fire to the utmost extremity；
and continue it so； until there arise no more
vapours。 When the vessels are cold unlute the receiver；
and shaking it to make the Volatile salt；
which sticks to it； fall to the bottom； pour it all
into a bolt…head； fit it to a Head with a small receiver；
lute well the junctures and placing it in
sand； give a little fire under it； and the volatile salt
will rise and stick to the head； and the top of the
Bolt…head； take off your head and set on another
in its place； gather your salt and stop it tip quickly；
for it easily dissolves into a liquor； continue the
fire； and take care to gather the Salt according as
you see it appear； but when there rises no more
salt； a liquor will distill； of which you must draw
about three ounces； and put out the fire；〃 &c。
The 〃lees of wine；〃 in connection with the ancient
methods of ink…making is also referred to by the
younger Pliny in his twenty…fifth book； which the
Edinburgh Review has carefully translated and
printed：
〃INK （or literally） BLACKING。Ink also may be
set down among the artificial （or compound）
drugs； although it is a mineral derived from two
sources。 For； it is sometimes developed in the
form of a saline efflorescence；or is a real mineral
of sulphureous colorchosen for this purpose。
There have been painters who dug up from graves
colored coals （CARBON）。 But all these are useless
and new…fangled notions。 For it is made from
soot in various forms； as （for instance） of burnt
rosin or pitch。 For this purpose； they have built
manufactories not emitting that smoke。 The ink
of the very best quality is made from the smoke of
torches。 An inferior article is made from the soot
of furnaces and bath…house chimneys。 There are
some （manufacturers） also； who employ the dried
lees of wine； and they do say that if the lees so
employed were from good wine； the quality of the
ink is thereby much improved。 Polygnotus and
Micon； celebrated painters at Athens； made their
black paint from burnt grape…vines； they gave it
the name of TRYGYNON。 APELLES； we are told；
made HIS from burnt ivory； and called it elephantina
'ivory…black。' Indigo has been recently imported；
a substance whose composition I have not
yet investigated。 The dyers make theirs from the
dark crust that gradually accumulates on brass…kettles。
Ink is made also from torches （pine…knots）；
and from charcoal pounded fine in mortars。 'The
cuttlefish' has a remarkable qualify in this respect；
but the coloring…matter which it produces is not
used in the manufacture of ink。 All ink is improved
by exposure to the sun's rays。 Book…writers'
ink has gum mixed with it；weavers' ink is
made up with glue。 Ink whose materials have been
liquified by the agency of an acid is erased with
great difficulty。〃
There are but few exceptions respecting the general
sameness of ink receipts of the succeeding centuries；
one of which is the 〃Pomegranate；〃 credited
to the seventh century but really belonging to an earlier
period：
〃Of the dried Pommegranite （apple） rind take
an ounce； boil it in a pint of water until 3/4 be
gone； add 1/2 pint of small beer wort and once
more boil it away so that only a 1/4 pint remain。
After you shall have strained it； boiling hot through
a linnen cloth and it comes cold； being then of a
glutinous consistence； drop in a 'bit' of Sal Alkali
and add as much warm water as will bring it to a
due fluidity and a gold brown color for writing with
a pen。〃
Following this formula and without any modifications；
I obtained an excellent ink of durable quality；
but of poor color； from a standpoint of blackness。
A less ancient 〃Secreta；〃 signed by the Italian
monk 〃Theophilus；〃 who lived about the commencement
of the eleventh century； is most interesting：
〃To make ink； cut for yourself wood of the
thorn…trees in April or May； before they produce
flowers or leaves； and collecting them in small bundles；
allow them to lie in the shade for two； three；
or four weeks； until they are somewhat dry。 Then
have wooden mallets； with which you beat these
thorns upon another piece of hard wood； until you
peel off the bark everywhere； put which immediately
into a barrelful of water。 When you have
filled two； or three； or four； or five barrels with
bark and water； allow them so to stand for eight
days； until the waters imbibe all the sap of the bark。
Afterwards put this water into a very clean pan； or
into a cauldron； and fire being placed under it； boil
it； from time to time； also； throw into the pan some
of this bark； so that whatever sap may remain in it
may be boiled out。 When you have cooked it a
little； throw it out； and again put in more； which
done； boil down the remaining water unto a third
part； and then pouring it out of this pan； put it
into one smaller； and cook it until it grows black
and begins to thicken； add one third part of pure
wine； and putting it into two or three new pots；
cook it until you see a sort of skin show itself on
the surface； then taking these pots from the fire；
place them in the sun until the black ink purifies itself
from the red dregs。 Afterwards take small
bags of parchment carefully sewn； and bladders；
and pouring in the pure ink； suspend them in the
sun until all is quite dry； And when dry； take from
it as much as you wish； and temper it with wine
over the fire； and； adding a little vitriol； write。
But； if it should happen through negligence that
your ink be not black enough； take a fragment of
the thickness of a finger and putting it into the
fire； allow it to glow； and throw it directly into the
ink。〃
After reciting many receipts which pertain to other
arts； this good old monk concludes：
〃When you shall have re…read this often； and
have committed it to your tenacious memory； you
shall thus recompense me for this care of instruction；
that； as often as you shall successfully have
made use of my work； you pray for me for the pity
of omnipotent God； who knows that I have written
these things which are here arranged； neither
through love of human approbation； nor through
desire of temporal reward； nor have I stolen anything
precious or rare through envious jealousy； nor
have I kept back anything reserved for myself
alone； but； in augmentation of the honour and
glory of His name； I have consulted the progress
and hastened to aid the necessities of many men。〃
The 〃thorn〃 trees which Theophilus mentions are
asserted by some writers （with whom I do not
agree） to be those commonly known as the 〃Norway
spruce；〃