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Mary Johns； microscopic writer and author。
1749。
Charles Woodham； 〃A Specimen of Writing；
in the most Useful Hands now Practised in England。〃
1750。
John Oldfield； 〃Honesty。〃 He wrote one piece
in 〃The Universal Penman。〃
1750。
Joseph Champion； 〃The Parallel or Comparative
Penmanship。〃 1762； 〃The Living Hands。〃
1751。
Edward Lloyd； 〃Young Merchants Assistant。〃
1758。
Richard Clark； 〃Practical and Ornamental Penmanship。〃
1760。
Benjamin Webb； writer of copy books； etc。
1762。
William Chinnery； 〃The Compendious Emblematist。〃
1763。
William Massey； 〃The Origin and Progress of
Letters；〃 containing valuable information
about the art。
1769。
John Gardner； 〃Introduction to the Counting
House。〃
1780。
Edward Powell； writing master and designer。
1784。
E。 Butterworth； 〃The Universal Penman〃 in
two parts； published in Edinburgh。
1795。
William Milns； 〃The Penman's Repository。〃
1799。
William G。 Wheatcroft； 〃The Modern Penman。〃
1814。
John Carstairs； 〃Tachygraphy； or the Flying
Pen。〃 2。 〃Writing made easy； etc。〃
Illustrated works on the subject of penmanship of
contemporaneous times and not of English origin are
but few。 The best known are：
1543。
Luduvico Vicentino； 〃A Copy book〃 published
in Rome； seems to have been the first。
1570。
Il perfetto Scrittore （The Perfect Writer） by
Francesco Cresci； published in Rome。
1605。
Spieghel der Schrijkfkonste （or Mirror of
Penmanship） written by Van den Velde； published
in Amsterdam。
1612。
〃Writing and Ink Recipes；〃 by Peter Caniparius；
Venice and London。
1700。
Der Getreue Schreibemeister （or True Writing
Master）； by Johann Friedr Vicum； published
in Dresden。
From 1602 to 1709 many 〃Indian〃 ink specimens
were extant and are still of the different schools of
penmanship。 The productions of Phrysius； Materot and
Barbedor illustrating the French style； Vignon； Sellery
and others； for the Italian hand； and Overbique and
Smythers for the German text； and Ambrosius Perlengh
and Hugo； with a few more； complete the list。
CHAPTER XII。
STUDY OF INK。
LACK OF INTEREST AS TO THE COMPOSITION OF INK DURING
PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURYTHE CONDITIONS
WHICH THEN PREVAILED NEARLY THE SAME AS
THE PRESENT TIMECHEMISTRY OF INK NOT UNDERSTOOD
THIS LACK OF INFORMATION NOT CONFINED TO
ANY PARTICULAR COUNTRYLEWIS； IN 1765； BEGINS
A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION ON THE SUBJECT OF INKS
THE RESULTS AND HIS CONCLUSIONS PUBLISHED IN
1797THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND IN 1787 RECEIVES
COMPLAINTS ABOUT THE INFERIORITY OF INKS
ITS SECRETARY READS A PAPER THE SAME YEARTHE
PAPER CITED IN FULLDR。 BOSTOCK IN 1830 COMMUNICATES
TO THE SOCIETY OF ARTS WHAT HE ESTIMATES
TO BE THE CAUSES OF IMPERFECTIONS IN INK
ACTION OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
COMPLICATIONS SURROUNDING THE MANUFACTURE OF INK
ONLY THIRTY…FIVE YEARS AGO。
THE increasing demands for ink； and the lack of interest
as to its composition during the eighteenth
century； if viewed in the same lights which prevail in
our own times； permitted the general manufacture of
cheap grades of ink which possessed no very lasting
qualities。 The chemistry of Inks was not fully understood；
indeed we find Professer Turner of the College
of Edinburgh declaring in 1827：
〃Gallic acid was discovered by Scheele in 1786；
and exists ready formed in the bark of many trees；
and in gall…nuts。 It is always associated with
tannin； a substance to which it is allied in a manner
hitherto unexplained。 It is distinguished from
tannin by causing no precipitate in a solution of
gelatine。 With a salt of iron it forms a dark blue
coloured compound； which is the basis of ink。 The
finest colour is procured when the peroxide and
protoxide of iron are mixed together。 This character
distinguishes gallic acid from every other substance
excepting tannin。〃
The general lack of information or knowledge respecting
ink chemistry or its time…phenomena was not
confined to any particular country； and it does not
appear that any general or specific attention was
scientifically directed to it until 1765； when William
Lewis； F。 R。 S。； an English chemist； publicly announced
that he proposed to investigate the subject。
His experimentations covered a period of many years
and their results and his theories as to the phenomena
of inks were published in 1797。 The most valuable
of his conclusions were that an excess of iron salt in
the ink is detrimental to color permanence （such ink
becoming brown on exposure） and also that acetic
acid in the menstruum provides an ink of greater
body and blackness than sulphuric acid does （a circumstance
due to the smaller resistance of acetic acid
to the formation of iron gallo…tannate）。 Many of his
other observations were later shown to have been
erroneous。 Dr。 Lewis was the first to advocate log…
wood as a tinctorial agent in connection with iron and
gall compositions。
Ribaucourt； a French ink maker； in 1798 determined
that an excess of galls is quite as injurious to
the permanence of ink as an excess of iron。
Pending the completion of the researches of Lewis；
the Royal Society of England； affected by complaints
from all quarters relative to the inferiority of inks as
compared with those of earlier times； brought the
subject to the attention of many of its members for
discussion and advice。 Its secretary； Charles Blagden；
M。 D。； read a paper before the society； June 28； 1787；
which was published in the 〃Philosophical Transactions〃
and widely circulated。 It is so interesting that
copious extracts are given：
〃In a conversation some time ago with my friend
Thomas Astle； Esq。； F。 R。 S。 and A。 S。； relative
to the legibility of ancient MSS。 a question arose；
whether the inks in use eight or ten centuries ago；
which are often found to have preserved their colour
remarkably well； were made of different materials
from those employed in later times； of which many
are already become so pale as scarcely to be read。
With a view to the decision of this question； Mr。
Astle obligingly furnished me with several MSS。；
on parchment and vellum； from the ninth to the
fifteenth centuries inclusively； some of which were
still black； and others of different shades of colour；
from a deep yellowish brown to a very pale yellow；
in some parts so faint as to be scarcely visible。 On
all of these I made experiments with the chemical
re…agents which appeared to me best adapted to
the purpose； namely； alkalis both simple and phlogisticated；
the mineral acids； and infusions of galls。
〃It would be tedious and superfluous to enter into
a detail of the particular experiments； as all of
them； one instance only excepted； agreed in the
general result； to shew that the ink employed
anciently； as far as the above…mentioned MSS。
extended； was of the same nature as the present；
for the letters turned of a reddish or yellow brown
with alkalis； became pale； and were at length
obliterated； with the dilute mineral acids； and the
drop of acid liquor which had extracted a letter；
changed to a deep blue or green on the addition of
a drop of phlogisticated alkali； moreover； the letters
acquired a deeper tinge with the infusion of
galls； in some cases more； in others less。 Hence
it is evident； that one of the ingredients was iron；
which there is no reason to doubt was joined with
the vitriolic acid； and the colour of the more perfect
MSS。 which in some was deep black； and in others
purplish black； together with the restitution of that
colour； in those which had lost it； by the infusion
of galls； sufficiently proved that another of the ingredients
was a stringent matter； which from history
appears to be that of galls。 No trace of a black
pigment of any sort was discovered； the drop of
acid which had completely extracted a letter； appearing
of an uniform pale ferrugineous color； without
an atom of black powder； or other extraneous
matter； floating in it。
〃As to the durability of the more ancient inks；
it seemed； from what occurred to me in these experiments；
to depend very much on a better preparation
of the material upon which the writing was
made； namely； the parchment or vellum； the blackest
letters being those which had sunk into it
deepest。 Some degree of effervescence was commonly
to be perceived when the acids came into
contact with the surface of these old vellums。 I
was led； however； to suspect； that the more modern；
for in general the tinge of colour； produced by the
phlogisticated alkali in the acid laid upon them；
seemed less deep； which； however； might depend
in part upon the length of time they have been
kept： and perhaps more gum was used in them；
or possible they wer