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that 〃Laymen； to whom it matters not whether
they look at a book turned wrong side upwards or
spread before them in natural order； are altogether
unworthy of any communion with books。〃
It is stated by Mr。 Knight； in his 〃Life of Caxton：〃
〃We have abundant evidence； whatever be the
scarcity of books as compared with the growth of
scholarship； that the ecclesiastics laboured most
diligently to multiply books for their own establishments。
In every great abbey there was a room
called the Scriptorium； where boys and novices were
constantly employed in multiplying the service…
books of the choir； and the less valuable books
for the library； whilst the monks themselves laboured
in their cells upon bibles and missals。 Equal
pains were taken in providing books for those who
received a liberal education in collegiate establishments。〃
Warton says：
〃At the foundation of Winchester College； one
or more transcribers were hired and employed by
the founder to make books for the library。 They
transcribed and took their food within the college；
as appears by computation of expenses on their
account now remaining。 But there are many indications
that even kings and nobles had not the advantage
of scholars by profession； and； possessing
few books of their own； had sometimes to borrow
of their more favoured subjects。〃
We learn from another source that the great not
only procured books by purchase； but employed transcribers
to make them for their libraries。 The manuscript
expense account of Sir John Howard； afterwards
Duke of Norfolk； shows in 1467； Thomas Lympnor；
that is Thomas the Limner of Bury； was paid the sum
of fifty shillings and two pence for a book which he
had transcribed and ornamented； including the vellum
and binding。 The limner's bill is made up of a number
of items； 〃for whole vignettes； and half…vignettes；
and capital letters； and flourishing and plain writing。〃
These transcribers and limners worked principally
upon parchment and vellum； for the use of paper was
by no means extensive until the invention of the art
of printing。 Some of the old manuscripts contain
drawings representing a copier or transcriber at work；
where the monk is represented as provided with a
singular and tolerably complete set of apparatus to
aid him in his work。 The desk for containing the
sheet or skin on which he is writing； the clasp to keep
this sheet flat； the inkstand； the pen； and the knife；
the manuscript from which the copy is being made；
the desk for containing that manuscript； and the
weight for keeping it in its place；all are shown； with
a clearness which； despite of bad perspective； renders
them quite intelligible。
Of the two substances； parchment and vellum； before
the invention of paper； another word or two may be
said。 Parchment is made from the skin of sheep or
lambs； vellum； from that of very young calves （sometimes
unborn ones）； but the process of preparing is
pretty much the same in both cases。 When the hair
or wool has been removed； the skin is steeped in lime
water； and then stretched on a square frame in a light
manner。 While so stretched； it is scraped on the
flesh side with a blunt iron； wetted with a moist rag；
covered with pounded chalk； and rubbed well with
pumice stone。 After a time； these operations are
repeated； but without the use of chalk； the skin is
then turned； and scraped on the hair side once only；
the flesh side is then scraped once more； and again
rubbed over with chalk； which is brushed off with a
piece of lambskin retaining the wool。 All this is
done by the skinner； who allows the skin to dry on a
frame； and then cuts it out and sends it to the parchment
maker； who repeats the operation with a sharper
tool； using a sack stuffed with flocks （wool or hair） to
lay the skin upon； instead of stretching it on a frame。
Respecting the quality； value； and preparation of
parchment in past ages； it is stated in the 〃Penny
Cyclopaedia〃 that parchment from the seventh to the
tenth century was 〃white and good； and at the
earliest of these periods it appears to have nearly
superseded papyrus； which was brittle and more
perishable。 A very few books of the seventh century
have leaves of parchment and papyrus mixed； that
the former costly material might strengthen and support
the friable paper。 About the eleventh century
it grew worse； and a dirty colored parchment is
evidence of a want of antiquity。 This may possibly
arise from the circumstances that writers of this time
prepared their own parchment； and they were probably
not so skilled as manufacturers。 A curious
passage from a sermon of Hildebert； Archbishop of
Tours； who was born in 1054； is a voucher for this
fact。 The sermon is on the 〃Book of Life；〃 which
he recommends his hearers to obtain：
'Do you know what a writer does？ He first
cleanses his parchment from the grease； and takes
off the principal part of the dirt； then he entirely
rubs off the hair and fibres with pumice stone； if
he did not do so； the letters written upon it would
not be good； nor would they last long。 He then
rules lines that the writing may be straight。 All
these things you ought to do； if you wish to possess
the book which I have been displaying to you。'
At this time parchment was a very costly material。
We find it mentioned that Gui； Count of Nevers；
having sent a valuable present of plate to the Chartreux
of Paris； the unostentatious monks returned it
with a request that he would send them parchment
instead。〃
CHAPTER XXX。
MODERN INK BACKGROUNDS （TRUE PAPER）。
WHEN IT WAS THAT TRUE PAPER WAS INVENTEDCITATIONS
FROM MUNSELL ABOUT CHINESE AND OTHER
ANCIENT PAPERA SHORT CHRONOLOGY FROM THE
SAME AUTHORLINEN PAPER IN USE IN THE TWELFTH
CENTURYBOMBYCINE PAPERDEVELOPMENTS OF
THE MICROSCOPEMETHODS EMPLOYED IN ASCERTAINING
ORIGIN OF LINEN PAPER BY MEERMANSOME
OBSERVATIONS RELATIVE TO THE EVOLUTION OF PAPER
RAPID IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY AFTER INVENTION
OF PRINTINGCURIOUS CUSTOMS IN THE USE OF THE
WATER MARKNO DISTINCTIONS IN QUALITY OF PAPER
USED FOR MSS。 OR OTHER BOOKSANECDOTES AND
OBSERVATIONS ABOUT THE WATER MARKITS VALUE
IN DETECTING FRAUDSINTERESTING ANECDOTE OF
ITS USE IN FABRICATING A FRAUDFULLER'S CHARACTERIZATION
OF THE PAPERS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIESWHEN
THE FIRST PAPER MILL WAS ESTABLISHED
IN EUROPE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF LINEN
PAPERDATE OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FIRST
PAPER MILL IN AMERICAWHO FIRST SUGGESTED
WOOD AS A MATERIAL FOR MAKING PAPERSOME
NAMES OF AUTHORS ON THE SUBJECT OF PAPERSTORY
OF RAG PAPER INSTRUCTIVE AS WELL AS INTERESTING。
WHEN it was that the great change occurred and
true paper made of fibrous matter or rags reduced to
a pulp in water was invented has been a subject of
considerable thought and investigation。 Munsell； in
his 〃Chronology of Paper and Paper…Making；〃 credits
it to the Chinese； and estimates its date to be
included in the first century of the Christian era。 He
observes：
〃The Chinese paper is commonly supposed to
be made of silk； but this is a mistake。 Silk by
itself cannot be reduced to a pulp suitable for making
paper。 Refuse silk is said to be occasionally
used with other ingredients； but the greater part
of the Chinese paper is made from the inner bark
of the bamboo and mulberry tree； called by them
the paper tree； hempen rags； etc。 The latter are
prepared for paper by being cut and well washed
in tanks。 They are then bleached and dried； in
twelve days they are converted into a pulp； which
is then made into balls of about four pounds
weight。 These are afterwards saturated with
water； and made into paper on a frame of fine
reeds； and are dried by being pressed under large
stones。 A second drying operation is performed
by plastering the sheets on the walls of a room。
The sheets are then coated with gum size； and
polished with stones。 They also make paper from
cotton and linen rags； and a coarse yellow sort
from rice straw； which is used for wrapping。 They
are enabled to make sheets of a large size； the
mould on which the pulp is made into paper being
sometimes ten or twelve feet long and very wide；
and managed by means of Pulleys。
〃The Japanese prepare paper from the mulberry
as follows： in the month of December the twigs
are cut into lengths not exceeding thirty inches and
put together in bundles。 These fagots are then
placed upright in a large vessel containing alkaline
ley； and boiled till the bark shrinks so as to allow
about a half an inch of the wood to appear free at
the top。 After they are thus boiled they are exposed
to a cool atmosphere； and laid away for
future use。 When a sufficient quantity has been
thus collected； it is soaked in water three or four
days； when a blackish skin which covered it is
scraped off。 At the same time also the stronger
bark which is of a fu