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all parts of Europe。 His little volume contains the
replies which Meerman received。 The scholars who
remitted the result of their investigations were unable
to distinguish between what they estimated as
cotton or linen rags。 They did； however； establish
the fact that paper made of linen rags existed before
1308； and some of them even sought to give the
honor of the invention to Germany。 They also asserted
that the most ancient English specimen of
such a paper belonged to the year 1342。
The transformation of paper made from every conceivable
fibrous material into what is commonly
known as 〃linen〃 or true paper was of slow growth
until after the invention of printing。 Following that
great event it is surprising； how； in so short a period；
the manufacturers of paper improved its quality and
the degree of excellence which it later attained。
They imitated the old vellum so closely that it was
even called vellum and is so known to this day。
This class of paper was employed both for writing
and printing purposes and has never been excelled；
surpassing any like productions of modern times。
A curious custom came into vogue during the
early infancy of the 〃linen〃 paper industry； which
is of so much interest and possesses so curious a
history as to be well worth mentioning。 It is the
water mark as it is commonly but erroneously termed
in connection with paper manufacture。
Its origin dates back to the thirteenth century；
though the monuments indicating its use before the
time of printing are but few in number。
The real employment of the water mark may be
said to have commenced at the time when it was
a custom of the first printers to omit their names
from their works。 Also； it is to be considered that at
this period comparatively few people could either
read or write and therefore pictures； designs or other
marks were employed to enable them to distinguish
the paper of one manufacturer from another。 These
marks as they became common naturally gave their
names to the different sorts of paper。
The earliest known water mark on linen paper
represented a picture of a tower and was of the date
of 1293。 The next known water mark which can be
designated is a ram's head and is found in a book of
accounts belonging to an official of Bordeaux which
was then subject to England。 It is dated 1330。
In the fifteenth century there were no distinctions
in the quality of paper used for manuscripts or for
books。 In the Mentz Bible of 1462 are to be found
no less than three sorts of paper。 Of this Bible； the
water mark in some sheets is a bull's head simply；
and in others a bull's head from whose forehead rises
a long line； at the end of which is a cross。 In other
sheets the water mark is a bunch of grapes。
In 1498 the water mark of paper consisted of an
eight pointed star within a double circle。 The design
of an open hand with a star at the top which
was in use as early as 1530； probably gave the name
to what is still called hand paper。
It appears that even so high a personage as Henry
VIII of England in 1540 utilized the water mark in
order to show his contempt for and animosity to
Pope Paul III； with whom he had then quarreled；
gave orders for the preparation of paper； the water
mark of which was a hog with a miter： this he used
for his private correspondence。
A little later； about the middle of the sixteenth
century； the favorite paper mark was the jug or pot；
from which would appear to have originated the term
pot paper。 Still another belonging to this period
was the device of a glove。
At the beginning of the seventeenth century； the
device was a fool's cap and which has continued by
name as the particular size which we now designate
fool's cap。
The water mark has continued to increase in popularity
and to…day may be found in almost any kind of
paper； either in the shape of designs； figures； numbers
or names。
The circumstance of the water mark has at various
times been the means of detecting frauds； forgeries
and impositions in our courts of law and elsewhere。
The following is introduced as a whimsical example
of such detections and is said to have occurred in the
fifteenth century； and is related by Beloe； London；
1807：
〃The monks of a certain monastery at Messina
exhibited to a visitor with great triumph； a letter
which they claimed had been written in ink by the
Virgin Mary with her own hand； not on the ancient
papyrus； but on paper made of rags。 The visitor
to whom it was shown observed with affected
solemnity； that the letter involved also a miracle
because the paper on which it was written could
not have been in existence until over a thousand
years after her death。〃
An interesting example of the use of water marks
on paper for fraudulent purposes is to be found in a
pamphlet entitled 〃Ireland's Confessions。〃 This person；
a son of Samuel Ireland； who was a distinguished
draughtsman and engraver； about the end of the
eighteenth century fabricated a pretended Shakespeare
MSS。； which as a literary forgery was the
most remarkable of its time。 Previous to his confessions
it had been accepted by the Shakespearean
scholars as unquestionably the work of the immortal
bard。 The following is a citation from his Confessions：
〃Being thus urged forward to the production of
more manuscripts； it became necessary that I
should posses； a sufficient quantity of old paper to
enable me to proceed； in consequence of which I
applied to a book…seller named Verey； in Great
May's buildings； St。 Martin's Lane； who； for the
sum of five shillings； suffered me to take from all
the folio and quarto volumes in his shop the fly
leaves which they contained。 By this means I was
amply stored with that commoditynor did I fear
any mention of the circumstance by Mr。 Verey；
whose quiet； unsuspecting disposition； I was well
convinced； would never lead him to make the transaction
public； in addition to which； he was not
likely even to know anything concerning the supposed
Shakespearean discovery by myself； and even
if he had； I do not imagine that my purchase of
the old paper in question would have excited in
him the smallest degree of suspicion。 As I was
fully aware； from the variety of water…marks； which
are in existence at the present day； that they must
have constantly been altered since the period of
Elizabeth and being for some time wholly unacquainted
with the water…marks of that age； I very
carefully produced my first specimens of the
writing on such sheets of old paper as had no
marks whatever。 Having heard it frequently stated
that the appearance of such marks on the papers
would have greatly tended to establish their validity；
I listened attentively to every remark which
was made upon the subject； and from thence I at
length gleaned the intelligence that a jug was the
prevalent water…mark of the reign of Elizabeth； in
consequence of which I inspected all the sheets of
old paper then in my possession； and having selected
such as had the jug upon them； I produced the
succeeding manuscripts upon these； being careful；
however； to mingle with them a certain number of
blank leaves； that the production on a sudden of so
many water…marks might not excite suspicion in
the breasts of those persons who were most conversant
with the manuscripts。〃
Fuller； writing in 1662； characterizes the paper of
his day：
〃Paper participates in some sort of the character
of the country which makes it； the Venetian
being neat； subtle； and court…like； the French
light； slight； and slender； and the Dutch thick；
corpulent； and gross； sticking up the ink with the
sponginess thereof。 And he complains of the
'vast sums of money expended in our land for
paper out of Italy； France； and Germany； which
might be lessened were it made in our nation。' 〃
Ulman Strother in 1390 started his paper mill at
Nuremberg in Bavaria which was the first paper
mill known to have been established in Germany； and
is said to have been the only one in Europe then
manufacturing paper from linen rags。
Among the privy expenses of Henry VII of the
year 1498 appears the following entry： 〃A reward
given to the paper mill； 16s。 8d。〃 This is probably
the paper mill mentioned by Wynkin de Worde； the
father of English typography。 It was located at
Hertford； and the water mark he employed was a star
within a double circle。
The manufacture of paper in England previous to
the revolution of 1688 was an industry of very small
proportions； most of the paper being imported from
Holland。
The first paper mill established in America was by
William Rittenhouse who emigrated from Holland
and settled in Germantown； Pa。； in 1690。 At Roxborough；
near Philadelphia； on a stream afterwards
called Paper Mill run； which empties into the Wissahicken
river； wa